| I | INTRODUCTION |
Christmas, annual Christian holiday commemorating the
birth of Jesus Christ. Most members of the Roman Catholic Church and followers
of Protestantism celebrate Christmas on December 25, and many celebrate on the
evening of December 24 as well. Members of most Orthodox Churches around the
world also celebrate the holiday on December 25. Some Orthodox Christians in
Russia, Ukraine, the Holy Land (the historic region of Palestine), and elsewhere
celebrate Christmas on January 7 because they follow the Julian calendar.
Members of the Armenian Church observe Christmas on January 6, following the
unique custom of celebrating both the birth and baptism of Christ on the same
day.
The official Christmas season, popularly known
as either Christmastide or the Twelve Days of Christmas, extends from the
anniversary of Christ’s birth on December 25 to the feast of Epiphany on January
6. On the Epiphany, some Catholics and Protestants celebrate the visit of the
Magi while Orthodox Christians, who call the feast Theophany, celebrate the
baptism of Christ.
The most important holiday on the Christian
calendar is Easter, which commemorates the Crucifixion and Resurrection of
Jesus. Nevertheless, many people, particularly in the United States and Canada,
consider Christmas to be the most significant annual Christian event. In
addition to being a religious holiday, Christmas is a widely observed secular
festival. For most people who celebrate Christmas, the holiday season is
characterized by gatherings among family and friends, feasting, and gift
giving.
Christmas is based on the story of Jesus’ birth
as described in the Gospel according to Matthew (see Matthew 1:18-2:12) and the
Gospel according to Luke (see Luke 1:26-56). Roman Catholics first celebrated
Christmas, then known as the Feast of the Nativity, as early as Ad 336. The word Christmas
entered the English language sometime around 1050 as the Old English phrase
Christes maesse, meaning “festival of Christ.” Scholars believe the
frequently used shortened form of Christmas—Xmas—may have come into use in the
13th century. The X stands for the Greek letter chi, an
abbreviation of Khristos (Christ), and also represents the cross on which
Jesus was crucified.
| II | ORIGINS OF CHRISTMAS |
Historians are unsure exactly when Christians
first began celebrating the Nativity of Christ. However, most scholars believe
that Christmas originated in the 4th century as a Christian substitute for pagan
celebrations of the winter solstice. Before the introduction of Christmas, each
year beginning on December 17 Romans honored Saturn, the ancient god of
agriculture, in a festival called Saturnalia. This festival lasted for seven
days and included the winter solstice, which usually occurred around December 25
on the ancient Julian calendar. During Saturnalia the Romans feasted, postponed
all business and warfare, exchanged gifts, and temporarily freed their slaves.
Many Romans also celebrated the lengthening of daylight following the winter
solstice by participating in rituals to glorify Mithra, the ancient Persian god
of light (see Mithraism). These and other winter festivities continued
through January 1, the festival of Kalends, when Romans marked the day of the
new moon and the first day of the month and year.
Although the Gospels describe Jesus’ birth in
detail, they never mention the date, so historians do not know on what date he
was born. The Roman Catholic Church chose December 25 as the day for the Feast
of the Nativity in order to give Christian meaning to existing pagan rituals.
For example, the Church replaced festivities honoring the birth of Mithra, the
god of light, with festivities to commemorate the birth of Jesus, whom the Bible
calls the light of the world. The Catholic Church hoped to draw pagans into its
religion by allowing them to continue their revelry while simultaneously
honoring the birthday of Jesus. The Eastern Orthodox Church took a slightly
different course. By the end of the 4th century the Eastern Church in
Constantinople had also begun to acknowledge December 25 as Jesus’ birthday, but
it emphasized the celebration of Christ’s baptism on January 6 as the more
important holiday.
Over the next 1000 years, the observance of
Christmas followed the expansion of Christianity into the rest of Europe and
into Egypt. Along the way, Christian beliefs combined with existing pagan feasts
and winter rituals to create many long-standing traditions of Christmas
celebrations. For example, ancient Europeans believed that the mistletoe plant
held magic powers to bestow life and fertility, to bring about peace, and to
protect against disease. Northern Europeans associated the plant with the Norse
goddess of love, Freya, and developed the custom of kissing underneath mistletoe
branches. Christians incorporated this custom into their Christmas celebrations,
and kissing under a mistletoe branch eventually became a part of secular
Christmas tradition.
During the Reformation of the 16th century,
Protestants challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, including its
toleration of surviving pagan traditions during Christmas festivities. For a
brief time during the 17th century, Puritans banned Christmas in England and in
some English colonies in North America because they felt it had become a season
best known for gambling, flamboyant public behavior, and overindulgence in food
and drink.
Europeans who settled in North America often
found they had to change their Christmas celebrations because they could not
faithfully recreate the traditions of their homelands. For example, colonists in
the American South may have aspired to recreate a sense of the English
Christmas. But colonial accounts of Christmas celebrations in the South do not
mention the presence of mummers (masked or costumed merrymakers) or waits
(musicians or carolers paid to perform at Christmastime), both of which were
central figures of the traditional English Christmas. Nor do historical accounts
describe settlers engaging in such traditional English customs as feasting on
boars’ heads or drinking from wassail bowls (bowls filled with spiced ale or
wine).
Colonists from England, France, Holland,
Spain, and other countries also gradually modified their Christmas ceremonies as
they encountered new cultures and traditions in the New World. For example, in
large towns, where diverse groups lived close together, the common ground for
celebration could often be found in public and secular festivities rather than
in potentially divisive religious ceremonies. Thus, at least in New York City,
the winter’s holidays often culminated on New Year’s, not Christmas.
| III | RISE OF THE MODERN AMERICAN CHRISTMAS |
In the United States and Canada, many
elements of modern Christmas celebrations did not emerge until the 19th century.
Before then Christmas had been an ordinary workday in many communities,
particularly in New England, where early Puritan objections to Christmas
celebrations remained highly influential. Among some groups, Christmas was an
especially boisterous event, characterized by huge feasts, drunkenness, and
raucous public revelry. In an English tradition that survived in some parts of
North America, Christmas revelers would dress in costume and progress from door
to door to receive gifts of food and drink. Most holiday gifts were limited to
small amounts of money and modest presents passed from the wealthy to the poor
and from masters to their servants. Families almost never exchanged Christmas
gifts among themselves.
The rapidly expanding industrial economy of
the 19th century not only flooded the market with new goods for sale, but also
helped establish a new middle class, one that placed special value on home and
family life. Christmas gained increased prominence largely because many people
believed it could draw families together and honor children. Giving gifts to
children and loved ones eventually replaced the raucous public celebrations of
the past, and Christmas became primarily a domestic holiday.
The new custom of Christmas gift giving
allowed the marketplace to exert an unprecedented influence on holiday
celebrations. Commercial innovations such as department stores and mass
advertising further expanded the custom of exchanging Christmas gifts. Seasonal
retail sales helped fuel the economy, causing merchants and advertisers to
become some of the season’s most ardent promoters. Many holiday celebrants
regretted these changes, however, and began voicing the now common lament that
Christmas had become too commercial.
Christmas also gained new importance among
urban residents. Cities became crowded with immigrants, who introduced a wide
variety of religious and cultural practices to North American life. Celebrating
Christmas emerged as a way for people from different parts of the world to
create a sense of community in the city. The holiday forged a broad,
nondenominational sense of Christian spirit while promoting an idealized sense
of communal good will.
| A | Santa Claus |
As Christmas evolved in the United States,
new customs were adopted and many old ones were reworked. The legend of Santa
Claus, for example, had origins in Europe and was brought by Dutch settlers to
New York in the early 18th century. Traditionally, Santa Claus—from the Dutch
Sinterklaas—was depicted as a tall, dignified, religious figure riding a
white horse through the air. Known as Saint Nicholas in Germany, he was usually
accompanied by Black Peter, an elf who punished disobedient children. In North
America he eventually developed into a fat, jolly old gentleman who had neither
the religious attributes of Saint Nicholas nor the strict disciplinarian
character of Black Peter.
Santa’s transformation began in 1823, when
a New York newspaper published the poem “A Visit from Saint Nicholas,” which
Clement Clark Moore had written to amuse his daughter. The poem introduced many
Americans to the story of a kindly saint who flew over housetops in a
reindeer–drawn sleigh. Portraits and drawings of Santa Claus by American
illustrator Thomas Nast further strengthened the legend during the second half
of the 19th century. Living at the North Pole and assisted by elves, the modern
Santa produced and delivered toys to all good children. By the late 19th century
he had become such a prominent figure of American folklore that in 1897, when
Virginia O’Hanlon wrote to the New York Sun newspaper asking if Santa
were real, she received a direct answer: “Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa
Claus.”
| B | The Christmas Tree |
While Santa Claus became increasingly
familiar to Americans, the German Christmas tree also acquired popularity in
North America. As early as the 17th century, Germans had transformed this pagan
symbol of fertility into a Christian symbol of rebirth. According to legend, the
Christmas tree tradition began with the founder of German Protestantism, Martin
Luther. While walking through the forest on Christmas Eve, Luther was so moved
by the beauty of the starlit fir trees that he brought one indoors and decorated
it with candles to remind his children of God’s creation. In 1841 Prince Albert
of Germany gave his wife, Queen Victoria of England, a gift of a Christmas tree.
This was reputedly the first Christmas tree in England, but the custom spread
quickly. German immigrants took the Christmas tree to other parts of Europe and
to the United States and Canada, where it soon became a popular tradition.
Blown-glass ornaments, tin angels, paper chains, candles, cornucopias filled
with sugarplums, and other decorations made the simple evergreen tree into a
beautiful parlor centerpiece at Christmastime.
| C | Christmas Cards |
The practice of exchanging Christmas cards
also became a widespread custom in the 19th century. Europeans had distributed
wood prints of religious themes for Christmas during the Middle Ages (5th
century to 15th century). In 1843 English illustrator John Callcott Horsley
created the first modern Christmas card. The card depicted a family celebration
and its caption read, “A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year to You.” In the
United States, German-born printer Louis Prang made advances in color
lithography that enabled him to mass-produce a colorful Christmas card in 1875.
The card sold extremely well, and soon the custom of exchanging Christmas cards
spread throughout the country.
| IV | IN THE UNITED STATES TODAY |
The inhabitants of the United States have
emigrated from all over the world. As a result, many traditions have mingled to
form modern American Christmas celebrations and folklore. Some Swedish American
communities hold Santa Lucia festivals to honor a young girl who was killed in
the 4th century for her Christian beliefs. German Americans in Pennsylvania
create elaborate landscapes, called putzes, beneath their Christmas trees. These
displays—made of moss, pine branches, stones, and logs—depict the birth of
Christ. Christmas Eve bonfires illuminate the banks of the Mississippi River in
Louisiana so that Papa Noël (French for “Father Christmas”) will be able
to find his way to the homes of the local Cajun children. In the southwestern
United States, Mexican Americans hold festivals called posadas that
recreate Mary and Joseph’s search for a place to stay where Mary could give
birth to Jesus (see Virgin Mary and Joseph). In addition to these
Christian celebrations, the eight-day Jewish festival of Hanukkah and the
seven-day African American festival of Kwanzaa are popular celebrations that
coincide with the Christmas season.
Despite this variety of people and faiths,
there is a striking unity to Christmas celebrations in the United States. For
many people, the holiday season begins with the arrival of Santa Claus in the
annual Thanksgiving Day parade in New York City sponsored by Macy’s department
store. Television advertisements heralding the beginning of the Christmas
shopping season can begin even earlier in autumn. Many Americans participate in
a communal sense of holiday spirit: Cities decorate their streets with Christmas
lights; stores fill their shelves with extra merchandise; friends and relatives
exchange holiday cards; communities decorate public Christmas trees; and
volunteers from the Salvation Army ring bells on city streets to solicit charity
donations.
Most people who celebrate Christmas also
participate in special holiday rituals in their homes. Families often decorate
evergreen trees and place colorfully wrapped presents beneath them. A family
member might give a reading of “A Visit from Saint Nicholas” or read passages
from the Bible. Or families might gather around the television to watch old
movie favorites such as It’s a Wonderful Life (1946) and
Miracle on 34th Street (1947), or holiday cartoons such as “How
the Grinch Stole Christmas” and “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.” Each year as
Christmas approaches, many families attend church pageants that recount the
story of Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem. On Christmas Eve, children often hang
stockings; they awake in the morning to find the stockings filled with gifts
from Santa Claus. Many families attend church on Christmas Eve and open their
gifts that evening. Others wait until the next morning to exchange gifts.
| V | IN CANADA TODAY |
Canada, like the United States, combines
sacred and secular customs brought from many parts of the world. Canadians with
an English Protestant heritage are likely to enjoy a feast of turkey and plum
pudding and focus their holiday celebrations on December 25. The French Catholic
population generally attends midnight Mass on Christmas Eve, then holds a
Christmas feast known as a réveillon. Many Dutch Canadians begin their
Christmas on December 6, when children leave their shoes filled with grain for
Santa’s horse, Sleipner. Ukrainian Canadians in the western part of the country
celebrate the season much as their ancestors in the Eastern Orthodox church did,
by feasting on a 12–course dinner and distributing gifts on January 6.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, an old English
custom called mummering has shown signs of being revived. Mummering takes place
sometime during the 12 days of Christmas, usually on the night of January 5, the
eve of Epiphany which is usually referred to as the Old Twelfth, or Twelfth
Night. Adults practice the custom by disguising themselves with masks or by
dressing in the clothing of the opposite sex. They visit the homes of friends
and neighbors, where they perform a short song or dance while trying not to be
identified. In return for their performance, they receive small cakes and wine
or perhaps a glass of eggnog, which is a blend of eggs, cream, sugar, and
alcohol.
Despite these varied customs, Canadians share
the traditions of most modern Christmas celebrations around the world. The
holiday helps create a sense of unity among Canadians as they decorate Christmas
trees, attend church, shop for and exchange gifts, and join in Christmas
feasts.
| VI | RELIGIOUS PRACTICE AND POPULAR CUSTOMS |
The Bible provides no guidelines that explain
how Christmas should be observed, nor does it even suggest that it should be
considered a religious holiday. Because of the lack of biblical instructions,
Christmas rituals have been shaped by the religious and popular traditions of
each culture that celebrates the holiday. Traditionally, the sacred Christmas
season starts with Advent, which begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas
and continues to Christmas Day. The sacred season ends on Epiphany, January 6.
During Advent, Christians make preparations for the commemoration of Jesus’
birth on December 25, and also look forward to the Second Coming of Christ. Each
of the four weeks symbolizes a different way in which believers perceive Christ:
through the flesh, the Holy Spirit, death, and Christ’s judgment of the dead.
The Advent wreath, which consists of four candles anchored in a circle of
evergreen branches, originated with German Lutherans; the tradition has been
adopted by many churches and families. At the beginning of each of the four
weeks preceding Christmas, Christians light an Advent candle as they say a
prayer.
On Christmas Eve, churches around the world
hold evening services. At midnight, most Catholic and many Protestant churches
hold special candlelight services. The Catholic midnight Mass was first
introduced by the Roman Catholic Church in the 5th century. Christmas Masses are
sometimes solemn and sometimes buoyant, depending on the particular culture that
conducts them. Among some congregations, worshipers enter the church in communal
processions. Church services often feature candlelight and organ music. Some
also include a dramatization of the biblical story of Jesus’ birth, a practice
begun by Saint Francis of Assisi in the 13th century.
Christmas observances have also assimilated
remnants of ancient midwinter rituals that celebrate the returning light of the
sun following the winter solstice. For example, many cultures continue the
pre-Christian custom of burning Yule logs during the midwinter season; the Yule
log symbolizes the victory of light over the darkness of winter. The tradition
of lighting the Yule log is still observed, especially by Europeans. Families
light the log on Christmas Eve and keep it burning until Epiphany. Some families
save the remains of the Yule log to help kindle the fire the following year.
According to ancient tradition, the ashes provide protection against bad luck
during the year.
Christians traditionally exchange gifts as a
reminder of God’s gift of a savior to humankind. Gift giving also recalls an
ancient Roman custom of exchanging gifts to bring good fortune for the new year.
In most cultures that celebrate Christmas, a mythical figure delivers gifts to
children. Many of these legendary gift givers bear a passing resemblance to
pre-Christian elves and pranksters, who would distribute gifts while also making
mischief in the community. As cultures adapted to Christianity, however, the
gift givers often required that children behave well in order to receive their
treats. This good behavior usually entailed obedience to parents and recitation
of verses from the Bible. If the children misbehaved, they might receive a lump
of coal or a switch rather than sweets and toys. Since the 19th century, Santa
Claus and other mythical gift givers have become increasingly gentle, generous,
and forgiving.
| VII | CHRISTMAS AROUND THE WORLD |
Christmas customs around the world reflect
the variety of cultures that celebrate the holiday. For some people, Christmas
is primarily a holy day marked by religious services. For others, gift giving,
feasting, and good times figure more prominently. At its root, Christmas
celebrates one of the fundamental events of Christianity, the birth of Jesus.
However, the celebration of Christmas also incorporates many secular customs
that have been handed down through families and borrowed from other cultures.
This complex layering of sacred and secular observances creates celebrations
that vary from nation to nation, and from culture to culture.
| A | Among Eastern Orthodox Christians |
In Greece and Russia, countries where the
Orthodox Church is strongest, Christmas is not as prominent a holiday as it is
in the West. Epiphany holds more significance for members of the Orthodox
Church, while New Year’s Day is the more popular secular festival in these
countries.
| A1 | In Greece |
The Greek Christmas, or
Christougenna, pays homage to the Nativity of Christ while also
incorporating popular folklore and superstitions. On Christmas Eve, Greek
children go from house to house knocking on doors and singing Greek songs that
herald the arrival of the Christ child. The family celebration focuses on a
Christmas Eve dinner, which, in the Greek Orthodox tradition, follows several
weeks of fasting. According to legend, mischievous, often hideous–looking elves
called Kallikantzaroi wreak havoc in houses for the next 12 days. Burning
incense or leaving a peace offering may offer some protection against the elves.
Most families decorate a small wooden cross with basil and dip it into a shallow
bowl of water. This is believed to give the water holy powers. The water is then
sprinkled throughout the house to keep the mischievous spirits away. In the
Greek Orthodox Church, the water bowl and cross are also part of an important
Epiphany rite known as the Blessing of the Waters (see Holy Water).
| A2 | In Russia |
After the Russian Revolution of 1917,
authorities of the newly formed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
prohibited the practice of all religions. Millions of Russian Orthodox
Christians could no longer openly celebrate Christmas or Epiphany. After the
USSR dissolved in 1991, however, the Russian Orthodox Church revived Christmas
rituals. Like the Greeks, some Russians fast during a period before Christmas.
Then, at the sight of the first star in the sky on Christmas Eve, a 12-course
supper begins, with one course for each of Jesus’ 12 disciples. The meal
includes borscht, or beet soup; stuffed cabbage; and kutiya, a
dish of kasha (whole-wheat grains) soaked in water for hours and seasoned
with honey, nuts, and crushed poppy seeds.
Despite the widespread influence of
Western culture in Russia since the fall of the Soviet Union, the American
custom of holiday shopping has not spread among Russians. In fact, December 25th
holds little religious or secular significance for most Russians. New Year’s Day
remains the most festive holiday in the country. The Russian Pryaznik Zimy
(Winter Festival) is celebrated during the Christmas and New Year’s season.
Festivities include carnivals, sports, and special circus performances. During
this festival, Russians decorate evergreen trees, which they call New Year’s
trees. Like Santa Claus, Dyed Moroz (Grandfather Frost) has a white beard
and appears dressed in red, with black boots. He arrives on New Year’s Day to
give children toys, ginger cakes, and perhaps a traditional set of Matryoshka
dolls, which open to reveal smaller dolls nested inside one another.
| B | Among Roman Catholics |
Among Catholic populations in Europe,
Latin America, and the Philippines, Christmas celebrations have distinctive
local variations. Nevertheless, Catholics in all these regions share customs
that have become longstanding Catholic traditions of the Christmas season.
People in many Catholic cultures celebrate the days before Christmas with
elaborate public reenactments of Mary and Joseph’s search for lodging before the
birth of Jesus. Official Catholic observations of Christmas Day center on three
Masses: at midnight, dawn, and during the day. However, the Christmas season
among Catholics usually begins with special prayers and church services on or
around December 16. Since 1969 the Roman Catholic Church has also observed a
holiday known as the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, on January 1. This
holiday replaced the traditional Feast of the Circumcision, which commemorated
Jesus’ circumcision. The Catholic Christmas season does not end until the Sunday
after Epiphany.
| B1 | In Italy |
During the Christmas season Italians
perform music at shrines of the Virgin Mary. They also play songs at the homes
of carpenters in honor of Saint Joseph, who was a carpenter. On Christmas Eve,
after a day of fasting, Italians enjoy a feast of eels and a spaghetti dish with
anchovies called cennone. Santa Claus is not a prominent figure in
Italian folklore. Instead, Italian children wait for La Befana, a good
witch who rides her broom to their homes on Epiphany to distribute gifts.
According to folk belief, La Befana—whose name refers to the word Epifania
(Epiphany)—was too busy to accompany the Three Wise Men on their journey to
visit the infant Jesus in Bethlehem. Now, to atone for her failing, she visits
all good children, leaving treats. She also visits bad children and leaves them
lumps of coal or bags of ash.
| B2 | In France |
Christmas in France is called Noël.
Celebrations reach their peak on Christmas Eve, which tends to be more
boisterous than solemn, especially in the cities. The festival meal is the
réveillon, a midnight supper that may consist of oysters, sausages, baked
ham, fowl, fruit, pastries, and wine. In the French countryside, families often
burn a large Yule log and preserve the ashes to protect the home from evil
during the coming year. In the cities, the Yule log custom survives as a
bûche de noël, a pastry baked in the shape of a log and iced with
chocolate cream that is made to look like bark. Children put their shoes in
front of the fireplace on Christmas Eve for Pere Noël (Father Christmas)
to fill with gifts, but the traditional day for exchanging gifts is New Year’s
day. In northern France, children receive gifts on December 6, the feast day of
Saint Nicholas.
| B3 | In Spain |
Spaniards attend church at Christmas,
but during the Christmas season they also participate in seasonal rituals that
can be traced back to pagan times. For example, townspeople gather in village
squares around an “urn of fate.” Each person writes his or her name on a piece
of paper and places it in the urn. A designated person then draws the names out,
two at a time. According to an old belief, those whose names are drawn together
will be best friends for the coming year.
Some Spaniards also play a traditional
game called Catalonia as part of their observance of Christmas. To play
the game, adults fill a hollow tree trunk with candy and nuts, and children hit
the tree with long sticks, trying to knock out the treats. The children of Cadiz
try to “swing in the sun,” another old wintertime custom. Each child tries to
swing higher than the others in order to lead the sun farther north, thereby
lengthening the days. In addition to observing Christmas, children in Spain
celebrate the eve of Epiphany, popularly known as Noche de Reyes (Twelfth
Night). On this night they commemorate the journey of the Three Wise Men who
traveled to Bethlehem to pay homage to the Christ child. On Noche de Reyes,
children put barley in their shoes and place them outside their doors. The
barley is for the wise men to feed their camels while traveling to visit Jesus.
By morning, the barley has disappeared and the wise men have left candy and
gifts in its place.
| B4 | In Central and South America |
The Spanish conquerors of Latin America
brought many of their Christmas traditions with them. Today, Latin American
Christmas celebrations mix the strong Catholic heritage and folk culture of
Spain with various indigenous customs that predate the Spanish conquest. Because
most of South America lies below the equator, Christmas falls during the hottest
period of the year there. In the warm December weather of most Latin American
countries, people stroll the streets at Christmastime, buying candles, pictures
of the Nativity, toys, drinks, and special foods. However, the streets empty as
whole communities attend Midnight Mass at local churches. Children in some
countries receive gifts on Christmas Eve from either Santa Claus or from a
mythical figure of local folklore. In other regions, the Three Wise Men leave
gifts for children on the eve of Epiphany.
In Chile, a significant number of
people have German heritage, and many Chileans decorate Christmas trees in the
German tradition. A traditional Christmas feast in Chile often includes a
pudding of dried fruit and a drink called a rompon, which is made with
milk, eggs, and alcohol. Chileans also drink a Christmas beverage called cola
de mono that is made with coffee, a liqueur, milk, and eggs.
As part of their Christmas celebration,
Puerto Ricans go caroling in small processions called trullas. Most
people in Puerto Rico wait until the Feast of the Epiphany to exchange gifts.
For Epiphany celebrations, children place straw and bowls of water under their
beds for the camels of the Three Wise Men. In the morning they find that the
straw and water have been replaced with gifts.
Cuba shares a Catholic heritage with
the rest of Latin America, but the practice of religion has been officially
banned on the island since the Communist regime led by Fidel Castro took power
in 1960. In 1997 Castro allowed Cubans to celebrate Christmas in honor of the
first visit to the island by Pope John Paul II.
Portuguese colonists brought Roman
Catholicism to Brazil in the 16th century. Today, Papai Noel (Father
Christmas) and his helpers walk the streets of Brazilian cities to wish people
Feliz Natal (Merry Christmas) and give small gifts to children. Because
Christmas falls during the summer, many Brazilians celebrate the holiday by
having parties on the beach. Midnight Mass is especially popular among the poor,
who have no money to buy gifts or to build Nativity scenes. After church, they
celebrate by exploding firecrackers and ringing bells.
| B5 | In Mexico |
Mexicans decorate their homes with
flowers, evergreen boughs, and colored paper lanterns during the Christmas
season. Most houses also build pesebres, replicas of the manger scene
where Jesus was born. The main events of the holiday season are the posadas,
which begin on December 16 and continue until Christmas Eve. Posadas are
evening processions that commemorate Mary and Joseph’s search for lodging.
Friends and relatives accompany people dressed as Mary and Joseph; some people
in the procession dress as angels. The group goes from house to house carrying
candles and singing songs, while Mary and Joseph knock on doors and ask to stay.
Each house refuses them entry, but eventually a household invites them in to
pray at their presebra. After each posada, participants dance, sing, and
eat a large meal. Children often try to break a piñata, a clay or
papier-mâché figure filled with sweets and small gifts. Piñatas are
usually decorated to look like a donkey, a bird, or some other kind of animal.
They are suspended from a tree branch or some other high place, and blindfolded
children try to break them with long sticks.
Although some Mexican children hope for
a visit from Santa Claus, many wait to receive gifts on Christmas Eve from
Quetzalcoatl, a Toltec and Aztec god and the legendary ruler of Mexico (see
Aztec Empire). In addition, many children write letters to the Christ child,
listing the gifts they hope to receive. On the night before Epiphany, they place
their shoes at the foot of their beds for the Three Wise Men to fill with
presents.
| B6 | In the Philippines |
Spanish priests introduced Roman
Catholicism to the Philippines in the 16th century, and today most Filipinos
observe Catholic holidays, including Christmas. The Christmas season starts
December 16 with a Mass called the Misa de Gallo. Each Christmas Eve,
Filipinos hold the Panunuluyan pageant, in which a couple reenacts Mary
and Joseph’s search for shelter. Filipinos do not decorate the inside of their
homes, but they carefully cover the outside with flags, colorful flowers, and
star-shaped paper lanterns called parols.
| C | Among Protestants |
After the Reformation in the 16th
century, most Protestant churches retained Christmas celebrations, but they
attempted to rid the holiday of its surviving pagan customs. During the 17th
century Puritans in England and in parts of the American colonies tried to
abolish Christmas altogether because they objected to the influence of
pre-Christian traditions. However, Christmas eventually was revived among most
Protestant communities as a largely secular celebration. Today it is probably
the most widely celebrated holiday among Protestants around the world.
| C1 | In Scandinavia |
Because the Scandinavian countries of
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are high in the northern hemisphere, daylight hours
are extremely short during the midwinter Christmas season. Therefore, many
Christmas celebrations there incorporate ancient Yule festivals that honor the
first lengthening of days following the winter solstice. For example, Swedes
sing carols in honor of the legendary Queen of Light, who is believed to bring
hope during periods of darkness.
The holiday season in many parts of
Scandinavia begins on December 13 with the celebration of Santa Lucia’s Day.
According to legend, Lucia was burned at the stake because she refused to deny
her Christian faith and marry a pagan. In her honor, young girls dress in white
robes and red sashes, and wear crowns of greenery and glowing candles. In some
communities, these girls lead processions of carolers through the streets.
Scandinavians also celebrate Christmas by decorating evergreen trees and
preparing such special foods as lutefisk (preserved cod); pickled
herring; and krummkake, a delicate, cone-shaped cookie. Scandinavians
give farm animals extra feed at Christmastime, in memory of the animals that
were present when Jesus was born, and leave grain outdoors for birds. According
to ancient legends, elves play mischievous tricks during the midwinter season,
but they also help Santa Claus bring gifts to children. In Sweden, children hope
to receive gifts from Santa Claus, known as Jultomten; in Denmark, he is
Nisse; and in Norway, Julenisse. Many children simply know him as
Santa Claus and believe that he lives in Greenland.
| C2 | In Germany |
The German custom of decorating an
evergreen tree at Christmastime has become one of the most popular images of
Christmas around the world. At one time, Germany supplied the world with almost
all of the decorative glass ornaments for Christmas trees. The Christmas season
begins in Germany during the first week of December, when town squares become
filled with stalls selling everything from toys to hot spiced wine. On the
evening of December 5, children wait for a visit from Saint Nicholas, who brings
them gifts. Most children also receive gifts on Christmas Eve. In some parts of
Germany, Santa Claus distributes gifts, but in other regions children’s treats
are delivered by Knecht Ruprecht, a mythical figure dressed in animal
skins. From Christmas Eve through all of Christmas Day and the next day, stores
are closed and all work stops as families exchange gifts, attend church, and
wish one another Fröhliche Weihnachten (happy Christmas). On Christmas
Eve, families traditionally gather around Christmas trees decorated with lights,
ornaments, and Lebkuchen, which are spiced cookies cut into decorative
shapes. Church services on Christmas Eve are illuminated by worshipers holding
candles.
| C3 | In England |
Religious customs of Christmas
celebrations in England center on recounting the story of Christ’s birth. Most
people who celebrate Christmas also participate in such secular customs as
watching Christmas plays, feasting, singing, and helping the poor. Before
Christmas Day, children write wish lists to Father Christmas, who is the British
version of Santa Claus. They then throw these letters into the fire. Children
believe that if a draft draws the letter up through the chimney, their wishes
will be fulfilled. Children open their gifts on Christmas afternoon, following a
traditional meal of turkey or goose and a dessert of Christmas pudding.
The day after Christmas is also a
national holiday in England, known as Boxing Day or Saint Stephen’s Day (see
Saint Stephen). Long ago, English gentry gave small gifts known as Christmas
boxes to their servants on the day after Christmas. English custom still sets
aside Boxing Day for tipping the delivery person and others who have performed
personal services throughout the year. Many people in England also make
charitable contributions to churches and to the needy on Boxing Day.
| C4 | In India |
The relatively few Christians in India
celebrate Christmas with festivities that bear the marks of former British rule.
Many decorate Christmas trees, distribute greeting cards, and exchange gifts.
Servants accept baksheesh (money tips) from their employers. In turn, the
servants give a lemon to the head of the household on Christmas morning as a
symbol of their esteem. During the Christmas season, Indians in the southern
part of the country decorate their houses with clay lamps at night.
| C5 | In Australia and New Zealand |
Because Australia and New Zealand are
in the southern hemisphere, Christmas there falls during summertime. In the warm
weather of the season, many Australians and New Zealanders celebrate Christmas
with picnics on the beach. British colonizers introduced traditional European
holiday customs in the late 18th century, but these customs have since been
modified to accommodate local conditions. For example, in addition to making
decorations with evergreen boughs and Christmas trees, Australians and New
Zealanders adorn their homes with flowers and other summer plants. Australians
gather at large festivals to sing Christmas carols by candlelight. Some carols
feature imagery of the Australian Christmas bush, a local plant that flowers at
Christmastime.
| D | Among Africans |
Because Christianity is not native to
cultures in Africa, the celebration of Christmas is not widespread there.
European missionaries introduced Christianity to the continent, so the Christmas
celebrations that occur among Africans resemble Western holiday traditions.
However, Africans generally embellish European celebrations with their own local
customs. For example, in Ghana children travel in groups from house to house,
chanting and singing songs that use imagery from local folklore. If a member of
a household rewards them with a gift, the children sing a song of thanks. In
Ghana and other former English colonies of Africa, children hang their stockings
for Father Christmas and carolers make rounds in the community on Boxing
Day.
European traditions have similarly
influenced regional holiday customs in areas once colonized by various countries
of Europe. For example, in the former French colony of the Republic of the
Congo, Catholics dramatize Mary and Joseph’s search for lodging, much as
Catholic communities do elsewhere in the world. In Ethiopia, Orthodox Christians
observe the Julian calendar and celebrate Christmas on January 7. They call this
celebration Lidet or Genna, and attend a church service lasting throughout the
night.
| E | Among Asians |
European missionaries also introduced
Christianity to the countries of Asia, but relatively small numbers of Asians
observe such Christian traditions as Christmas celebrations. Beginning in the
early 20th century, increased interest in Western culture has led many Asians to
celebrate the holiday, particularly in Japan. However, most Asians who observe
Christmas celebrate it primarily as a secular festival. In many countries,
businesses welcome the commercial activity generated by Christmas gift giving,
and traditional Western decorations transform stores during the holiday
season.
| E1 | In Japan |
Although Portuguese missionaries
brought Christianity to Japan in 1549, popular Christmas customs were not
introduced to the country until the middle of the 19th century. At first, only
the wealthier citizens of larger cities observed Christmas. By the 1920s,
however, the holiday had become an annual festival even in rural areas and among
the lower classes. Textbooks for English-language classes—a compulsory subject
in Japanese middle schools—often featured an essay on Christmas and suggested
that holiday gift giving expressed the Western idea of democracy.
Today Christmas is celebrated
throughout Japan. About half of Japanese households hold a family Christmas
celebration, even though it is not a legal holiday. Family feasts include a
decorated cake and other holiday treats. Children wait for Santa Claus, or
Santa Kurōsu ojiisan, to leave gifts next to their pillows. Usually,
though, Christmas acts as a prelude to the more important New Year’s
festival.
| E2 | In China |
Although Christianity is not officially
sanctioned by the Chinese government, a curiosity about the West and a growing
commercial sector in China have led to an increase of Christmas celebrations in
the country. Men dressed as Santa Claus appear in stores to hand out candy, and
waiters in restaurants wear Santa hats. The relatively small number of Chinese
Christians celebrate the holiday by building artificial trees—called trees of
light—and decorating them with paper chains, flowers, lanterns, and other
ornaments. Children hang muslin stockings in hopes that the mythical figure
Dun Che Lao Ren will fill them with presents.
| F | In Bethlehem |
In December, thousands of Christians from
all over the world gather in Bethlehem, the town of Jesus’ birth, to witness
annual rituals at the Church of the Nativity. On Christmas Eve, a horseman
bearing a large cross leads a procession of church members and dignitaries into
the church. They continue down steep stairs and enter the Grotto of the
Nativity, a long, narrow underground cavern. Carrying an ancient image of the
baby Jesus, which they wrap in swaddling clothes, they place the figure in a
manger at what is believed to be the actual birthplace of Christ.
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