I | INTRODUCTION |
The
Netherlands, a small country in northwestern Europe that faces the North
Sea. It is the largest of the Low Countries, which also include Belgium and
Luxembourg. The Netherlands is often called Holland, but Holland is really the
name of only the northwestern part of the country.
The Dutch have a saying that “God created the
world, but the Dutch created Holland.” About half the land in The Netherlands
lies at or below sea level. Much of this land has been reclaimed from the sea.
The Dutch built dikes around swampy or flooded land and then pumped the water
out. The pumping was originally done with windmills, but today electric pumps
are used.
The Netherlands has few natural resources, and
its lands are poor for agriculture. However, the Dutch people have struggled
against these obstacles and have made The Netherlands one of the wealthiest
countries in the world. Foreign trade is the mainstay of the Dutch economy.
Several major rivers of Europe flow through The Netherlands into the sea. These
rivers and the country’s location on the North Sea have helped make it a great
trading nation.
The Netherlands is one of the most densely
populated countries in the world. About 90 percent of its people live in cities.
Amsterdam is the capital and largest city. The seat of government is in The
Hague. Rotterdam is the major Dutch port and the country’s second largest
city.
This small country has made major
contributions to art, literature, and science. The 17th century is considered
the Golden Age in Dutch history. During this time Dutch artists Rembrandt, Jan
Vermeer, and Frans Hals painted masterpieces, and Dutch scientists made
startling discoveries with the powerful microscopes and telescopes they
built.
The Kingdom of The Netherlands was
established in 1815. At first, it included the whole of the Low Countries.
Belgium revolted in 1830 and became independent, and Luxembourg became fully
separate from The Netherlands in 1890. The Kingdom of The Netherlands today
includes, besides The Netherlands proper, the Netherlands Antilles and the
island of Aruba.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
The Netherlands, as its name suggests, is a
low-lying country. About half of the country’s area lies no more than 1 meter (3
feet) above sea level, and a quarter of this land is below sea level. Dikes,
canals, dams, sluices, and windmills characterize much of the landscape of The
Netherlands. They are part of a water drainage system that has enabled the Dutch
to increase their country’s land area by almost one fifth. More importantly,
without constant drainage and the protection of dunes along the coast, almost
half of The Netherlands would be inundated—mainly by the sea, but also by the
many rivers which cross it.
Canals, rivers, and arms of the sea cut
through much of the low-lying western part of the country. Farther to the east
the land lies slightly higher and is flat to gently rolling. The elevation
rarely exceeds 50 m (160 ft). Most of the land is devoted to agriculture.
The total area of The Netherlands is
slightly larger than the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island
combined. At its widest point from east to west The Netherlands extends 120
miles (193 km), and from north to south the greatest distance is 190 miles (306
km). The Netherlands is bounded on the east by Germany, on the south by Belgium,
and on the north and west by the North Sea. Across the North Sea lies the east
coast of Great Britain.
A | Natural Regions |
The North Sea coastline of The Netherlands
consists mostly of sand dunes. Many of the country’s major cities are located on
these slightly elevated dunes. To the north the sea has broken through the dunes
to form the West Frisian Islands. To the south rivers have made gaps in the
dunes and created a delta of islands and waterways.
Adjacent to the narrow strip of dunes is a
low-lying area protected by dikes and kept dry by continuous mechanical pumping.
This is polderland that the Dutch have reclaimed from the sea and turned into
productive farmland. Dikes were built around sections of this swampy or flooded
land and the water was pumped out, at first by windmills and later by steam and
electric pumps. Reinforcing dikes were also built along the lower courses of The
Netherlands’ major rivers, which flow above the land between banks of sediment
deposited when they flood.
The work of reclaiming the Zuider Zee, a
large arm of the North Sea, began in 1927. By 1932 a 29-km (18-mi) dike had been
built across the entrance to the Zuider Zee. The dike turned the waters behind
it into a freshwater lake within five years. By the early 1980s about
three-quarters of the area had been drained, but the project to reclaim the last
polder was canceled by the early 1980s. The freshwater lake left behind is
called the IJsselmeer.
In 1953 the spring tide severely flooded the
delta region in the southwest and about 1,800 people died. The Delta Plan,
launched in 1958 and completed in 1986, was implemented to prevent such
flooding. Under the plan, the Dutch shortened the coastline by about 700 km
(about 435 mi); developed a system of dikes; and built dams, bridges, locks, and
a major canal. The dikes created freshwater lakes and joined some islands.
The polders, which are used almost entirely
for agriculture, are composed chiefly of clay soils and peat. Most of the
eastern half of The Netherlands is covered by sandy soil deposited by glaciers,
wind, and rivers. Hilly country (the foothills of the Ardennes) and fertile
loamy soil is found only in the southern part of Limburg Province, an area of
rich farmland. Vaalserberg (321 m/1,053 ft), the nation’s highest point, is in
this area.
B | Rivers and Lakes |
The major rivers of The Netherlands are the
Rhine, flowing from Germany, and its several arms, such as the Waal and
Nederrijn rivers; and the Maas (a branch of the Meuse) and the Schelde (Escaut),
flowing from Belgium. These rivers and their arms form the delta with its many
islands. Together with numerous canals, the rivers give ships access to the
interior of Europe.
In the northern and western portions of The
Netherlands are many small lakes. Nearly all the larger natural lakes have been
pumped dry. However, land reclamation projects have created numerous new
freshwater lakes, the largest being the IJsselmeer.
C | Climate |
The Netherlands shares the temperate
maritime climate common to much of northern and western Europe. Prevailing winds
from the North Sea give The Netherlands mild winters and cool summers. Cloudless
days are uncommon, as is prolonged frost. Because The Netherlands has few
natural barriers, such as high mountains, the climate varies little from region
to region.
The average temperature range in
Vlissingen in the coastal region is 1° to 5°C (34° to 41°F) in January and 14°
to 21°C (57° to 69°F) in July. In De Bilt, in the densely populated central
region of the country, the average range is -1° to 4°C (31° to 40°F) in January
and 13° to 22°C (55° to 72°F) in July. Annual precipitation averages 690 mm (27
in) in Vlissingen and 770 mm (30 in) in De Bilt.
D | Plant and Animal Life |
Humans have altered the natural landscape
of The Netherlands in many ways over the centuries. Because land is scarce and
fully exploited, areas of natural vegetation are not extensive. A number of
national parks and nature reserves have been established to protect portions of
the natural landscape.
The forests, the tall grasses of the
dunes, and the heather of the heaths continue to provide habitats for roe deer,
rabbits, hares, and small numbers of swine. The forests, mainly of oak, beech,
ash, and pine, are carefully managed. Agricultural land, pastures in particular,
provide habitats for many species of migratory birds. Recent nature development
projects have increased the number of wetlands, providing habitats for a number
of species including the reintroduced beaver and otter.
E | Mineral Resources |
The Netherlands was long thought to be poor
in mineral resources. Peat, used as fuel, was dug in several regions, and
southern Limburg Province contained coal deposits. The last coal mine closed
1976, and peat extraction stopped somewhat later. Salt is still produced.
In the 1950s and 1960s great natural-gas
reserves were discovered in Groningen Province. The extraction of natural gas is
still of major economic significance. The Dutch also exploit petroleum and gas
reserves in the North Sea. Smaller deposits of crude petroleum and natural gas
are located in the northeastern and western parts of the country.
F | Environmental Issues |
The Netherlands is one of the most
proactive environmental countries in Europe; it was the first to produce a
national strategy for sustainable development, targeting sectors such as
agriculture and transportation. This action came in response to significant
pollution throughout the country, not all of its own making. One result of this
strategy was a significant rise in the cost of fuel. The Netherlands has tried
to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels by stimulating the use of wind and
bioenergy. It does not view nuclear power as an alternative energy source.
Sixty percent of the population currently
lives at or below sea level, making The Netherlands particularly vulnerable to
sea-level rise induced by climate change. Consequently, the country has been at
the forefront of calls for reductions in fossil fuel use and in deforestation.
It contributes less than 1 percent of global greenhouse emissions. The
Netherlands depends heavily on the use of fertilizer, and significant nitrate
pollution has occurred in water. In addition, pigs and other animals raised on
the country’s numerous farms produce huge amounts of manure and ammonium gas,
polluting groundwater resources and degrading vegetation. The government
requires farmers to process manure to be environmentally sound.
III | POPULATION |
The great majority of inhabitants of The
Netherlands are Dutch. Most residents of Friesland Province are Frisian, a
distinct cultural group with its own language. The Dutch government, fearing
overpopulation, encouraged Dutch emigration after World War II (1939-1945), and
some 500,000 people left. But an even larger number of people entered The
Netherlands—Europeans and Asians from the former Netherlands Indies dependency
(now part of Indonesia); industrial workers from Turkey, Morocco, and other
Mediterranean countries; residents of Suriname, also a former Dutch dependency,
and the Netherlands Antilles; and refugees from Third World countries.
Consequently, the country’s population, particularly in the large cities, now
includes many ethnic minorities.
A | Population Characteristics |
According to a 2008 estimate, The
Netherlands has a population of 16,645,313. The overall population density is
491 persons per sq km (1,272 per sq mi), making The Netherlands one of the most
densely populated countries in the world. The nation is heavily urbanized, with
about 67 percent of the population living in urban areas.
The largest cities are Amsterdam
(population, 2004 estimate, 739,300), the country’s capital and principal
economic and cultural center; Rotterdam (596,100), the leading seaport; The
Hague (468,400), the seat of government; and Utrecht (275,800), a transport and
services hub. Seventeen other cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants in the
early 2000s. Many of these cities are concentrated in the western provinces of
Noord-Holland (North Holland), Zuid-Holland (South Holland), and Utrecht,
comprising the large urban region called Randstad.
B | Language |
The official language of The Netherlands
is Dutch, which is spoken throughout the country. In the province of Friesland,
however, a large percentage of the population speaks another Germanic language,
Frisian, as its first language. Many immigrants still use their native language
along with Dutch. The importance of English is growing, especially in education.
See Dutch Language; Frisian Language.
C | Religion |
The Roman Catholics in The Netherlands
are concentrated in the southern part of the country. The largest Protestant
denomination is the Protestant Church of The Netherlands. Islam, the country’s
third-largest religion, is growing because of immigration and high birth rates
among Turkish and Moroccan immigrants. Small numbers of Jews, Hindus, and
Buddhists also live in The Netherlands.
The Protestant Church of The Netherlands
formed in 2004 from the merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, which had been the
largest Protestant denomination, with the Calvinist Reformist Church and the
small Lutheran Church of The Netherlands. Although The Netherlands has no
official religion, the Reformed Church has had a close association with the
Dutch state since the founding of the Dutch Republic. All the country’s monarchs
have been members of the Reformed Church.
IV | EDUCATION AND CULTURAL ACTIVITY |
A | Education |
From the time of the Protestant
Reformation in the 16th century, The Netherlands has enjoyed a high level of
basic education and comparatively high literacy rates. In the 19th century
efforts were made to systematize education and to secure adequate financing for
schools. As the state became more deeply involved in education, a dispute arose
concerning the fate of nonpublic, mainly church-related, schools. The so-called
school struggle became a major political issue and was not fully settled until
1917, when a constitutional amendment guaranteed equal, tax-paid financial
support for both public and nonpublic schools.
Today, about one-third of the elementary
and secondary schools in The Netherlands are public, and about two-thirds are
nonpublic, mainly Roman Catholic or Protestant. School attendance is compulsory
for children until the age of 16. Pupils attend a primary school for eight years
and then enter one of several types of secondary schools, which offer training
for entering a university or other advanced institution or for pursuing a
vocation. Instruction is in Dutch, except in Friesland, where classes are also
taught in Frisian.
The Netherlands has 13 university-level
institutions, including three technical universities and one agricultural
university. Major institutions of higher education in The Netherlands include
the University of Amsterdam, which was founded in 1632, and the state
universities of Groningen (1614), Leiden (1575), and Utrecht (1636). Several
schools of fine arts offer bachelor’s degrees.
B | Cultural Life |
Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus had wide
influence in the 16th century, and the country’s cultural life as a whole
achieved an international reputation in the 17th century, which is often called
its Golden Age. Among the influential Dutch figures of that time were jurist
Hugo Grotius, scientists Christiaan Huygens and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek,
cartographers Willem Janszoon Blaeu and Jodocus Hondius, writers Pieter
Corneliszoon Hooft and Joost van den Vondel, philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and
numerous theologians. In addition, foreigners lived in Holland to enjoy its
tolerant atmosphere, the most famous being French philosopher and mathematician
René Descartes and English philosopher John Locke. Well-known figures of the
Golden Age include the great 17th-century Dutch artists, such as Rembrandt, Jan
Vermeer, Frans Hals, and Jan Steen. See Baroque Art and Architecture;
Dutch Literature; Frisian Literature; Renaissance Art and Architecture.
The Dutch artistic tradition continued to
be vigorous in more recent centuries—producing noted and influential painters
such as Vincent van Gogh, Piet Mondrian, and Karel Appel—and lives on today,
particularly in Amsterdam, where artists from many countries work. During the
20th century a number of Dutch architects and town planners, including H.P.
Berlage, Gerrit Rietveld, and more recently Rem Koolhaas, gained international
reputations.
C | Cultural Institutions |
The Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam
has an international reputation, and another major Dutch symphony orchestra is
in Rotterdam. The main libraries of The Netherlands are those of the State
University of Leiden and the University of Amsterdam and the Royal Library in
The Hague. In addition, the country has many public libraries. Of the country’s
numerous museums the most famous are those displaying the work of Dutch
painters. These include the Rijksmuseum, the Rembrandt-Huis Museum, the Van Gogh
Museum, and the Stedelijk Museum, all in Amsterdam; the Royal Picture Gallery
(Mauritshuis), in The Hague; the Boymans-van Beuningen Museum, Kunsthal, and
Netherlands Architecture Institute, all in Rotterdam; and the Kröller-Müller
National Museum, in Hoge Veluwe National Park in Otterlo.
V | ECONOMY |
The Netherlands is a small country with few
natural resources. Yet, the Dutch people have made The Netherlands one of the
world’s wealthiest nations. Foreign trade is the mainstay of the Dutch economy.
Because of its location on the North Sea and because it is drained by some of
Europe’s largest rivers, The Netherlands is in an excellent position to carry
goods to and from the interior of Europe. Earnings from the export of finished
goods account for more than two-fifths of national income.
Despite the absence of natural resources,
the Dutch have many highly developed industries, including the manufacture of
precision machinery and electronic goods, the production of chemicals, and the
refining of oil. Dutch farmers have overcome poor soils and unfavorable weather
by concentrating on the most profitable crops, including livestock breeding,
dairy farming, and the growth of flowers and vegetables.
A | National Output |
In 2006 the gross domestic product (GDP) of
The Netherlands was measured at $662.3 billion. In the period 2006, the
country’s GDP in real currency grew at an average yearly rate of 2.9 percent.
Some 25 percent of the GDP is produced by manufacturing, construction, and
energy-related activities; agriculture and fishing contribute 2 percent; and the
service sector, which includes trade and financial activities, accounts for 73.2
percent.
B | Labor |
Of the 8.6 million employed workers, 73
percent work in trade and services; 20 percent are employed in industry,
including manufacturing and mining; and 3 percent work in agriculture, forestry,
and fishing. Approximately one-third of Dutch workers belong to labor
organizations, the largest of which are the Netherlands Trade Union
Confederation and the Christian National Federation of Trade Unions in the
Netherlands. The government systematically enters into negotiations between
employers and unions in order to secure collective bargaining agreements that
are consistent with its economic plans.
C | Agriculture |
Despite the small size and dense population
of The Netherlands, agriculture is highly productive and a major source of
exports. Cultivated fields cover 27 percent of the land. Most farms are
small—less than 10 hectares (25 acres)—but every hectare is utilized to the
utmost. The Dutch rely heavily on machinery and fertilizers, allowing Dutch
farms to achieve some of the highest yields per hectare in the world. Most Dutch
farmers are members of cooperatives through which they purchase equipment and
supplies. Dutch farmers also market much of their produce through
cooperatives.
The Netherlands’ leading agricultural
activity is dairy farming. The principal dairy regions are in central and
northern Holland. Two famous cheese-market cities are Gouda and Edam, for which
cheeses are respectively named.
Crop production includes cereals,
principally wheat; roots and tubers such as potatoes and sugar beets;
vegetables; fruits; and flowers. The Netherlands became famous for its tulip
breeders in the 18th century, and flowers and bulbs remain important exports.
The center of flower production is located between Haarlem and Leiden. Poultry
is raised throughout The Netherlands, especially in areas with poor, sandy
soils. Beef and pork are important agricultural exports.
D | Manufacturing |
The Dutch manufacturing sector is highly
diversified, and much of it is of recent origin; industrial production was
relatively unimportant until after World War II (1939-1945). Heavy industry,
such as the manufacture of steel, transportation equipment, and large machinery,
is much less important in The Netherlands than in neighboring countries. The
rapid post-1945 growth of manufacturing has been led by the chemical-processing
and electronics industries. Also important to the manufacturing sector are the
production of processed food, beverages, and tobacco products, machinery,
transportation equipment (particularly merchant ships), metal products, and
printed material.
E | Energy and Mining |
The industrial structure of The Netherlands
is closely related to the country’s sources of energy. Because the land is flat,
rivers in The Netherlands cannot be used for waterpower. For centuries the Dutch
relied heavily on windmills and peat for energy. As these became outmoded, coal
increased in importance. Deposits in Limburg Province supplied a part of Dutch
needs, but most coal was imported. Petroleum and natural gas became increasingly
important after World War II; these fuels also were imported, and the port of
Rotterdam became a leading center for receiving and refining petroleum.
In the 1950s and 1960s the Dutch
discovered large reserves of natural gas in Groningen Province. Production rose
rapidly, permitting the last domestic coal mines to be closed in 1973 and making
The Netherlands a major exporter of natural gas. In 2004 the output of crude
petroleum was 17.1 million barrels, and of natural gas, 73.1 billion cu m (2.6
trillion cu ft), making The Netherlands one of the world’s largest producers.
The output of electricity totaled 91 billion kilowatt-hours in 2003, 90 of which
was produced in thermal plants burning fossil fuels.
F | Currency and Banking |
The monetary unit of The Netherlands is the
single currency of the European Union (EU), the euro (0.80 euros equal
U.S. $1; 2006 average). The Netherlands is among 12 EU member states to adopt
the euro. On January 1, 2002, euro-denominated coins and bills went into
circulation, and the guilder, the country’s former national currency, ceased to
be legal tender.
As a participant in the single currency,
The Netherlands must follow economic policies established by the European
Central Bank (ECB). The ECB is located in Frankfurt, Germany, and is responsible
for all EU monetary policies, which include setting interest rates and
regulating the money supply. On January 1, 1999, control over Dutch monetary
policy was transferred from the central bank of The Netherlands, De
Nederlandsche Bank, to the ECB. After the transfer, De Nederlandsche Bank joined
the national banks of the other EU countries that adopted the euro as part of
the European System of Central Banks (ESCB).
Amsterdam is the leading center of Dutch
banking and insurance and the home of the country’s principal stock exchange.
The international commodity exchange for petroleum operates in Rotterdam.
G | Foreign Trade |
The Netherlands is an important center for
world trade. Much of the flow of goods into its ports is intended for
transshipment to other countries, mainly other members of the European Union.
The value of Dutch exports generally exceeds that of its imports.
Leading exports are basic manufactures;
food products, chiefly fruit and vegetables, dairy products and eggs, and meat;
machinery; chemicals and chemical products, including organic chemicals and
plastics; transportation equipment; petroleum products; and natural gas. Major
imports are machinery; basic manufactured items, principally paper goods,
textiles, and metals; food and live animals; chemicals; transportation
equipment; and petroleum and petroleum products. Fellow members of the European
Union account for the majority of Dutch imports and exports.
In 2006, 10.7 million foreigners visited
The Netherlands, attracted by its sandy beaches, by boating on its rivers and
lakes, and by historical sites and cultural activities. Tulip time in April and
May draws large numbers of visitors every year. The Dutch are themselves fond of
traveling, however, and they generally spend at least twice as much money abroad
as foreigners spend in The Netherlands.
H | Transportation |
Because the Dutch economy is
internationally oriented, good transportation facilities are essential to its
prosperity. Rotterdam is one of the world’s leading seaports, and Amsterdam also
is a major port. Both ports owe their importance to canals and rivers that
provide easy access to the sea as well as to the interior of Europe.
The New Waterway links Rotterdam to the
North Sea, which is connected to Amsterdam by the North Sea Channel. Dutch
canals and rivers navigable by vessels of more than 1,000 gross registered tons
have a total length of about 2,398 km (about 1,490 mi) and reach almost every
part of the country. The Dutch oceangoing merchant fleet had a capacity of 6.1
million gross registered tons in 2007.
The government-owned railroad network of
2,813 km (1,748 mi) of operated track, about three-quarters of which is
electrified, densely covers The Netherlands and provides frequent passenger
train service. Barge competition prevents the railroads from being major freight
carriers.
About 2,118 km (about 1,316 mi) of
limited-access highways and numerous bridges, tunnels, and ferries help to speed
the flow of Dutch motor-vehicle traffic. Bicycles are an important means of
local travel, and many roads have separate bicycle lanes.
The busiest international airport of The
Netherlands is Schiphol, near Amsterdam. Smaller airports serve Groningen,
Maastricht, Rotterdam, and other cities. Domestic air travel is of minor
importance. Royal Dutch Airlines (KLM) is the country’s leading air
carrier.
I | Communications |
In addition to the many dozens of regional
and local newspapers, The Netherlands has several nationally distributed
newspapers. Most are associated with a particular political or social position.
For example, the NRC-Handelsblad (published in Rotterdam) is liberal and
nonsectarian, the Volkskrant (Amsterdam) has Roman Catholic origins,
Trouw (Amsterdam) is close to the Reformed church, and Het Parool
(Amsterdam) is linked to the Socialist Party. Independent conservative
newspapers include the Algemeen Dagblad (Rotterdam) and the daily with
the largest circulation, the Telegraaf of Amsterdam.
Under the Media Act of 1988, two national
organizations coordinate radio and television broadcasting: an independent
consortium provides production facilities, while a firm representing both
government and the private sector transmits general-interest programming. Most
programs are produced by nonprofit associations that are given funds raised by
taxing radio and television owners and are allocated air time according to the
number of members they have. The major producers include VARA (socialist), NCRV
(Protestant), KRO (Roman Catholic), and AVRO and TROS (both nonsectarian). The
country has many smaller producers, making Dutch radio and television
pluralistic. In 1997 there were 980 radios and 542 televisions for every 1,000
people.
The Internet is an important communication
tool in The Netherlands, where Internet usage is well above the European
average. The Dutch have constructed a dense fiber-optic network to meet the
demands for high-speed Internet access and other data services.
VI | GOVERNMENT |
The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy
with a parliamentary system of government. It is governed under an 1814
constitution, as amended, most recently in 1983. The Netherlands has universal
suffrage for all citizens beginning at age 18.
A | Executive |
The head of state of The Netherlands is
the hereditary monarch, who has had little power in running the government since
the constitution was revised in 1848. The principal executive official of the
country is the prime minister, who is appointed by the monarch and heads a
cabinet that is responsible to the parliament, called the States-General.
B | Legislature |
The States-General consists of a First
Chamber (Eerste Kamer), composed of 75 members elected to terms of four
years by the provincial legislatures, and a Second Chamber (Tweede
Kamer), made up of 150 members popularly elected to terms of up to four
years under a system of proportional representation. The First Chamber is a
deliberative body that is similar to the House of Lords in Britain. It can only
approve or reject legislation; it may not initiate bills, nor can it change the
text of a bill sent to it by the Second Chamber. The Second Chamber, which holds
legislative power, is by far the more important of the two. Either or both
chambers may be dissolved by the monarch on condition that new elections be held
within 40 days.
C | Judiciary |
The judicial system of The Netherlands
includes four main levels of courts. The highest tribunal is the Supreme Court
(Hoge Raad), which sits in The Hague. The Supreme Court cannot rule on
constitutional matters but can overturn rulings of lower courts. Other major
judicial bodies are courts of appeal, district courts of justice, and canton
courts.
The Dutch legal system is influenced by
that of France. There are no jury trials. All cases are decided by judges, who
are appointed for life by the monarch.
D | Local Government |
The Netherlands is made up of 12
provinces: Drenthe, Flevoland, Friesland, Gelderland, Groningen, Limburg,
Noord-Brabant, Noord-Holland, Overijssel, Zuid-Holland, Utrecht, and Zeeland.
The political identity of each province can be traced back to the Middle Ages.
Today each is governed by a commissioner appointed by the monarch and a
popularly elected legislature (Provincial States). The country is further
divided into almost 500 municipalities, ranging from the largest city to the
smallest village.
Mergers have reduced the number of
municipalities to just over half the number they had reached in 1900, and very
few municipalities with less than 10,000 inhabitants are left. Each municipality
is governed by a popularly elected council and a burgemeester (mayor)
appointed by the government. These lower levels of government have only limited
taxing power and depend on the central government for most of their
finances.
On the local level, water boards have an
important function in water control, and they act with a high degree of
independence. For many centuries, landowners—especially farmers—governed the
boards. Since the 1990s, however, local voters have elected members of the
boards.
E | Political Parties |
The Netherlands uses systems of
proportional representation in electing municipal, provincial, and national
assemblies. This allows even small political parties to win representation. In
the 1994 Second Chamber elections, for example, 12 parties won seats. On the
national level, The Netherlands has always been governed by coalitions of
parties, the formation of which has often proved difficult.
The largest parties include the
center-right Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); the socialist-oriented Labor
Party; the People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD), a liberal,
business-oriented party; and Democrats 66, a relatively new party seeking
greater direct citizens’ participation in the political system. Many of the
smaller Dutch parties represent views on the far left or the far right.
F | Social Services and Policy |
The Dutch government administers one of
Europe’s most comprehensive welfare states. Taxes and social security premiums
together give the government command over nearly half the national income. Much
of this revenue is spent on education, health, employment stimulation, and
social welfare. To reduce persistent budget deficits, however, the government
has trimmed social services in recent years. Participation in the health
insurance system is compulsory for everyone earning less than a certain wage
(about 70 percent of the population). The Dutch are also protected by
unemployment benefits; sick pay; a guaranteed income for those physically unable
to work; pensions for widows, orphans, and the elderly; minimum-wage
regulations; and family allowances.
The Netherlands is renowned for its
liberal approach to social policy. Prostitution, recently legalized, has been
tolerated for nearly a century. In 1976 The Netherlands effectively
decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana and cannabis-related
substances.
In recent years The Netherlands has played
a leading role in several other areas of social policy. In 2000 The Netherlands
became the first country to allow homosexual couples to marry on the same legal
terms as heterosexuals. The measure formalized marriage and divorce guidelines
for same-sex unions and broadened adoption rights for homosexuals. In 2001 the
Dutch parliament enacted legislation legalizing euthanasia and assisted suicide.
By passing the legislation, The Netherlands became the first nation to legalize
the practices, which have been tolerated in the country for decades.
G | Defense |
The military defense of The Netherlands is
secured by the participation of its army, navy, and air force in the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Compulsory military service was abolished
in 1996 in favor of a volunteer army. In 2004 the Dutch armed forces numbered
53,130.
H | International Organizations |
The Netherlands has long advocated
European integration and international cooperation. Consequently, it joined the
Council of Europe in 1949; the European Community (now called the European
Union) in 1957; the Benelux Economic Union, which links the country with Belgium
and Luxembourg, in 1960; and other European organizations. It is also a charter
member of the United Nations and is a major contributor to programs furthering
the economic development of poor countries. The Netherlands is a founding member
of both NATO and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. In
2002 a permanent International Court of Justice was established in The
Hague.
VII | HISTORY |
Historical accounts of the Netherlands date
from the 1st century bc, when
Roman forces led by Julius Caesar conquered most of the present area of the
country. At the time the region was inhabited by Frisians, a Germanic tribe that
lived in the north, and by other Germanic and minor Celtic tribes.
A | The Roman Era |
Before the conquest, the Romans had
annexed lands to the southeast extending beyond the Rhine River. They penetrated
the Netherlands region mainly to control the several mouths of the Rhine, which
were then farther to the north than they are now. Under Roman rule, general
peace and prosperity prevailed for more than 250 years. Roman traders entered
the area freely, selling products from Italy and Gaul. The Romans built temples,
established a number of large farms, and introduced their civilization to the
region.
About ad 300 the hold by the Romans began to
weaken, and German tribes pushed into the area from the east. The Frisians, in
the north, held their ground, but Saxons occupied the eastern part of the
region, and the Franks moved into the west and south.
B | The Middle Ages |
The Franks were the most powerful of the
invaders. Their lands extended southward into what is now northern France and
eastward across the Rhine. Eventually, the Frankish kings subjugated the
Frisians and the Saxons and converted them to Christianity. By 800 the entire
territory of the Netherlands was part of the realm of Charlemagne. After
Charlemagne died, his empire disintegrated, and in 843 the Treaty of Verdun
divided the empire into three parts. The Netherlands became part of Lotharingia
(Lorraine) and still later, in 925, part of the Holy Roman Empire. At that time
a Dutch nation did not exist, and the immediate loyalties of the inhabitants
were to local lords. Gradually over the next centuries the whole region came to
be called the Low Countries, or Netherlands, including present-day Belgium.
During the 9th and 10th centuries
Scandinavian raiders, called Vikings, frequently invaded the coastal areas,
sailing far up the rivers in search of loot. The need for a stronger system of
defenses against such marauders gradually led to an increase in the power of the
local rulers and their vassals, the nobles, who were largely a warrior class.
Concurrently, the towns began to grow in importance, as artisans and merchants
settled in them and improved their defenses.
The period from the 9th to the 14th
centuries was a period of rapid development of the Dutch economy and landscape.
A fast growing population reclaimed large amounts of land from lakes and marshes
and founded hundreds of new settlements, which gradually developed into powerful
towns. Over time, The Netherlands became an important trading center. Under the
leadership of wealthy merchants the towns began to challenge the power of the
nobles who ruled the countryside. The merchants often supported the regional
ruler in his campaigns against unruly vassals, at the same time exacting from
him privileges designed to promote commerce and to strengthen the town and the
position of the merchant class.
In the early Middle Ages political
entities such as the counties of Flanders and Holland, the bishopric of Utrecht,
and the duchies of Brabant and Gelderland were established. In the far north,
however, the Frisians did not submit to a regional ruler but continued to obey
their local headmen. The association of The Netherlands with the Holy Roman
Empire remained largely nominal throughout the Middle Ages. Some trade was
conducted with German coastal cities to the east, such as Bremen and Hamburg,
but the major cultural influence came from France.
C | The Renaissance |
Through marriage, war, and political
maneuvering, most of the region comprising the present-day Netherlands—Holland,
Utrecht, Noord-Brabant, and Gelderland—came into the hands of the dukes of
Burgundy during the 15th and early 16th centuries. By 1519 this area was under
the benevolent control of Holy Roman emperor Charles V, of the Spanish branch of
the house of Habsburg, who was also king of Spain. In 1555, however, Charles
resigned both Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II, who was Spanish
by birth and education and had little liking for his northern European
territories. His oppressive rule led to the epochal war of independence waged
from 1568 to 1648 by the Dutch against Spain, then the most powerful nation in
Europe.
D | The Struggle for Independence |
The political disaffection between the
Low Countries and Spain coincided with the Protestant revolt against the Roman
Catholic church, which was the state church of Spain. Calvinism, a Protestant
movement, rapidly gained ground during this period; its adherents established in
the Low Countries a well-organized church that was prepared to challenge the
Roman Catholic church, particularly the Inquisition, a church institution that
sought to control heresy. In 1566 riots in which mobs destroyed images in
Catholic churches spread across the country. In response, a wrathful Philip sent
to The Netherlands Spanish troops commanded by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Third
Duke of Alba. The excessively harsh policies of the duke and of the Inquisition
resulted in open revolt in the Low Countries. William I, the Silent, prince of
Orange, who was one of the principal noblemen of the region, led the revolt.
Initially unsuccessful, the Dutch then concentrated their efforts in the north.
After William’s naval supporters, called the Sea Beggars, seized the Holland
port of Brill (Brielle) in 1572, the rebels took control of most northern towns,
which became the bases of the revolt. William tried to maintain the unity of
north and south but was unable to hold the north against the brilliant campaigns
of reconquest led by a new Spanish commander, Alessandro Farnese.
In 1579 the Union of Utrecht, an
anti-Spanish alliance of all northern and some southern territories, was formed.
The union signified the final divergence of the northern part of the Low
Countries, which later became The Netherlands, from the southern part, which
later became Belgium. The Union of Utrecht became the nucleus of the present
Dutch nation. In 1581 the Dutch provinces within the Union of Utrecht proclaimed
their independence from Spain. Subsequently, the new nation suffered a series of
reverses in the war with Spain, sustaining a major loss when William the Silent
was assassinated in 1584. By 1585 the Spanish had reconquered practically all
the south, including the important port of Antwerp. Eventually, however, the
tide of war turned in favor of the Dutch. From 1585 to 1587 English troops were
sent overseas to aid the insurgent cause, and in 1588 the English destroyed the
great Spanish Armada, a victory that drastically curtailed the ability of Spain
to wage war abroad. The seven provinces in the Union of Utrecht were cleared of
Spanish troops by 1600.
From 1609 to 1621 a truce was in effect
between the Spanish and the Dutch, but the war subsequently dragged on until
1648, when the Spanish signed the Treaty of Münster, by which the sovereignty of
the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces was recognized. The republic thus
severed all theoretical ties with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire and became one
of the great powers on the Continent, a republic in the midst of
monarchies.
E | The Golden Age |
In the early 17th century, when eventual
Dutch independence was assured, an era of great commercial prosperity opened, as
did the so-called Golden Age of Dutch art, with painters such as Rembrandt and
Jan Vermeer. By the mid-17th century the Netherlands was the foremost commercial
and maritime power of Europe, and Amsterdam was the financial center of the
Continent.
Within The Netherlands, the growing
population and prosperity led to the rapid growth of cities. The new financial
elite invested heavily in land reclamation (most natural lakes in Holland were
reclaimed during the first half of the 17th century) and built large numbers of
country houses.
E1 | Exploration and Colonization |
About 1600 a Dutch merchant expedition
of three vessels sailed from Amsterdam to Java. This was the first of numerous
journeys that left Dutch geographic names scattered over the globe, from
Spitsbergen to Cape Horn and from Staten Island to Tasmania. These voyages
resulted in the establishment or acquisition of many trading stations in Africa,
Southeast Asia, and America.
In 1602 the Dutch parliament granted to
the Dutch East India Company a charter that gave it a trading monopoly with all
countries east of the Cape of Good Hope in Africa and west of the Strait of
Magellan in South America. The charter also conferred many sovereign powers on
the company, including the right to wage war and to conclude peace. The West
India Company (see Dutch West India Company), founded in 1621,
established colonies in the West Indies, Brazil, and North America.
The East India Company established
itself first in the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and later on West Java, where
Batavia (modern Jakarta) became the center of the company’s enterprises. These
enterprises were devoted mostly to trade and to the establishment of trading
posts. Their functions generally did not include governing. Subsequently,
pressed by the necessity of maintaining peace among the native rulers, the Dutch
began to govern the territories (now called Indonesia) in order to maintain
trade.
E2 | Internal Developments |
William the Silent had been succeeded
in the position known as stadtholder and as military commander by his son
Maurice, who in turn was followed by his brother Frederick Henry. These men
governed in conjunction with the States-General, an assembly composed of
representatives of each of the seven provinces but usually dominated by the
largest and wealthiest province, Holland. The stadtholder’s power varied,
depending on his personal qualities of leadership, and the office eventually
became hereditary in the house of Orange.
Under Maurice, the republic was divided
by a religio-political conflict between two factions within the Reformed
(Calvinist) church, over predestination. The Arminian, or Remonstrant, cause was
championed by Holland under its leader, Jan van Olden Barneveldt; the other
provinces and Maurice sided with the Gomarists, or High Calvinists, who
prevailed. The dispute ended with Barneveldt’s execution for treason in
1619.
Frederick Henry’s son, William II of
Orange, became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland, and
after his death no stadtholder was appointed in Holland and four other provinces
for more than 20 years. William III of Orange, who was stadtholder from 1672
until his death in 1702, was also king of England after 1689 (see William
III).
F | The Decline of the Dutch Republic |
Inevitably, the Dutch and the English,
the leading maritime trading nations of the world, came into sharp commercial
rivalry and military conflict. The issues between the two countries were
contested, but not settled, by the two Anglo-Dutch Wars, the first waged from
1652 to 1654 and the second from 1664 to 1667. As a result of the latter
conflict the Dutch lost New Amsterdam in North America but acquired Dutch Guiana
(now Suriname). Other wars, costly in lives and money, followed against England
and France.
After the War of the Spanish Succession
(1701-1714), in which the Dutch were allies of the British against the French,
the economic and political power of the Netherlands began to decline. Eventually
the Dutch Republic was overshadowed by the expanding power of the United Kingdom
on the sea and France on the land.
When William III died without heirs in
1702, a distant relative of his, John William Friso, successfully claimed the
Orange title. In 1747 his son became stadtholder in all seven provinces as
William IV.
In the late 18th century a struggle broke
out between the party of the house of Orange, which had become conservative, and
the Patriot Party, which desired democratic reforms. The Orange Party enjoyed a
brief triumph with the help of an invading Prussian army in 1787, but in 1795
French troops and a force consisting of self-exiled Dutch citizens replaced the
republic of the seven United Provinces with the Batavian Republic, which was
modeled on the revolutionary French Republic.
G | The Napoleonic Era and the Union with Belgium |
The Batavian Republic survived only until
1806, when Napoleon I of France transformed the country into the kingdom of
Holland. In 1810 he incorporated it into the French Empire. While the Dutch were
under French rule, the British seized Dutch colonial possessions. After the fall
of Napoleon, the independence of the Netherlands was restored in 1815 by the
Congress of Vienna. In addition, the territory now comprising Belgium was made
part of the kingdom of The Netherlands.
The reunion of the two regions was not a
happy one, for they had become widely disparate in political background,
tradition, religion, language, and economy. In 1830 the Belgians revolted and
established their independence as a sovereign state. A conference in London of
the major European powers formulated the conditions of separation in 1831. The
stipulations were accepted by the Dutch king under pressure from France and
Britain. But when they were later revised by the conference in favor of the
Belgians, a Dutch army invaded Belgium and routed the opposing forces. The
conditions of separation were again revised and were finally accepted by both
countries in 1839.
H | The Development of Parliamentary Democracy |
The second half of the 19th century was
marked by a liberalization of The Netherlands government under the impact of the
revolutions that had swept Europe during the 1840s. The seeds of reform were
contained in the new constitution of 1848, which became the foundation of the
present democracy. Under its provisions arbitrary personal rule by the monarch
was no longer possible. The members of the first chamber of parliament, who had
formerly been appointed by the king, were thereafter elected by the provincial
states (assemblies). Members of the states and of the second chamber of
parliament were chosen by all people paying taxes in excess of a stipulated sum.
The almost solidly Roman Catholic southern provinces of Limburg and
Noord-Brabant, treated as conquered territories under the republic, had been
given equal status with other provinces under the monarchy, but it remained for
the constitution of 1848 to remove the religious restrictions against their
citizens. Thus a powerful Roman Catholic political party was able to form and to
contend with the Liberal group and the emerging conservative Protestant parties.
Through the late 19th century, suffrage was gradually extended, and agitation
for social reform increased markedly. The rise of a strong Labor Party and the
organization of workers into labor unions resulted in further social
reforms.
Administration of the colonies was also
reformed. In Indonesia, the area under Dutch control was increased, burdensome
taxation was gradually abandoned, and, after 1877, no financial surpluses from
that colony were used for the benefit of the treasury of The Netherlands.
From about 1880 to 1914 The Netherlands
enjoyed an era of economic expansion. This period ended during World War I
(1914-1918), when, despite remaining militarily neutral, the nation suffered
hardship through loss of trade as a result of the Allied blockade of the
Continent. The principal postwar problems of the country were economic, and
these were aggravated by the depression of the 1930s.
I | World War II and After |
At the outbreak of World War II in 1939,
The Netherlands again declared its neutrality, but in 1940 the country was
overrun by the Germans, following an aerial bombardment that destroyed the
greater part of Rotterdam. Much destruction was also wrought in other parts of
the country, not only by the Germans, but also by the Dutch, who opened many
dikes as desperate defense measures, and later by the Allies in aerial assaults
on German-held positions.
The Germans occupied the country until
they were ousted during 1944 and 1945. During the occupation, the Dutch set up
an underground network to resist German forces. The Germans responded with
bloody reprisals, but failed to rout the Dutch resistance movement. The German
occupiers deported more than 100,000 Dutch Jews; most of them died in Nazi
concentration camps. The Diary of Anne Frank gives a vivid picture of the
period of Nazi occupation, which finally ended on May 5, 1945.
The years following World War II were
marked by intensive efforts to rebuild the country and to restore its trade and
industry. In 1945 The Netherlands became a charter member of the United Nations.
In 1948 it received funds through the European Recovery Program. The Netherlands
joined with Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, and Luxembourg to form the
Brussels Treaty Organization (see Western European Union) in 1948, and
was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952. The
country joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949, the European
Defense Community Treaty in 1952, and the London-Paris accords in 1955, thus
becoming a full-fledged member of the Western European multinational defense
establishment. The late 1940s and early 1950s were also a time of rising prices,
generally unfavorable trade balances, and governments dominated by the Labor
Party.
Meanwhile, The Netherlands lost a war
against Indonesian nationalists in the East Indies, and in 1949 The Netherlands
formally transferred sovereignty in the East Indies (excluding Netherlands New
Guinea) to the Indonesian government. Netherlands New Guinea remained under
Dutch rule until 1962. Also, in 1954 Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles
became equal members of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
The Roman Catholic People’s Party came to
power in 1959 and retained pluralities in the lower house in the elections of
1963 and 1967. However, the government coalitions that the party formed in the
1960s proved unstable. Unrest in the Netherlands Antilles beset the government
in 1969, and marines were dispatched to assist police in riot control.
The inflation of the 1960s continued into
the 1970s as a major political problem. Wage and price controls were imposed in
1970, and taxes increased in 1971. In the elections of 1971 the governing
coalition lost its majority, and a coalition headed by the Anti-Revolutionary
Party formed a government. The government fell in 1972, however, and a caretaker
government ruled until May 1973, when Joop den Uyl, leader of the Labor Party,
was sworn in as prime minister of a five-party coalition. In an effort to boost
the economy and ease the economic burden on its citizens, the new administration
increased the minimum wage for adult workers, restricted rent increases, and
raised subsidies for new housing. However, when Suriname attained full
independence in 1975, tens of thousands of people living in the country chose to
retain their Dutch citizenship and emigrated to The Netherlands, increasing the
burden on the Dutch economy.
In 1977, following parliamentary
elections in the spring, the governing coalition of den Uyl fell apart following
disagreements over land-reform legislation. A new prime minister, Christian
Democrat Appeal (CDA) leader Andreas van Agt, was sworn in later in the year. In
1980 Princess Beatrix succeeded to the throne on the abdication of her mother,
Queen Juliana. Van Agt’s cabinet lost its parliamentary majority in May 1981,
but he formed a new coalition that lasted from September 1981 to May 1982.
Parliamentary elections were held in September 1982, after which van Agt
unexpectedly resigned his party leadership. His successor as head of the CDA was
Ruud Lubbers, who formed a new coalition with the liberal People’s Party for
Freedom and Democracy (VVD) in November 1982 and remained in power until 1994.
During this period the island of Aruba reached an agreement with the government
of The Netherlands separating the island from the Netherlands Antilles.
In the May 1994 elections, the Labor
Party emerged at the head of a three-party coalition government with the VVD and
the Democrats 66 and assumed control of the Dutch government for the first time
since 1977. Labor leader Wim Kok became the new prime minister. This coalition,
led by Kok, continued in power following the May 1998 national elections.
J | Recent Events |
The Dutch government faced a major crisis
in April 2002 following the publication of a government-commissioned report that
blamed the Dutch army for failing to prevent a massacre of Muslims in Bosnia and
Herzegovina in 1995. The Dutch military had led peacekeeping operations in the
safe haven of Srebrenica, a town in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, during that
country’s civil war (1992-1995). Bosnian-Serb forces overran the ill-conceived
peacekeeping mission and killed an estimated 7,500 Muslims in Europe’s worst
atrocity since World War II. Wim Kok accepted responsibility for the mission’s
failure and announced his government’s resignation.
National elections in May 2002 decisively
turned out the Labor-led coalition, which had governed the country for eight
years and overseen a period of prosperity and low unemployment. All three of the
former coalition parties suffered significant losses, and the center-right
Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) emerged as the largest party. The elections
also saw the rise of a new anti-immigration party, the Lijst Pim Fortuyn (LPF),
named for populist politician Pim Fortuyn. The party of Fortuyn, a charismatic
leader who was assassinated nine days before the elections, emerged as the
second-largest party. In July, following coalition talks, a new center-right
government formed, headed by the CDA with support from the LPF and VVD. CDA
leader Jan Peter Balkenende was elected to lead the new government. However,
constant infighting within the LPF broke the resolve of the coalition to hold
the government together, and the government collapsed in October after just
three months in power.
Early elections in January 2003 punished
the LPF by reducing its share of seats, but the CDA emerged relatively
unscathed, retaining the largest number of seats in the parliament. In May,
following four months of difficult negotiations, the CDA agreed to a
center-right coalition with the VVD and the Democrats 66. As prime minister,
Balkenende sought to implement public sector reforms and large cuts in public
spending, in addition to taking a tough stance on immigration. His government
introduced a series of stringent new policies to limit immigration, including
setting a limit on the number of persons allowed to settle in The Netherlands
from other countries in the European Union (EU). In February 2004 the Dutch
parliament approved a bill requiring the forcible expulsion of 26,000 asylum
seekers whose applications for residency in The Netherlands had failed. The
controversial new law was widely condemned by human rights groups.
Balkenende’s government supported the
proposed constitution for the EU, finalized in mid-2004 following years of draft
negotiations among EU member nations. However, Dutch voters resoundingly
rejected the proposed constitution in a referendum held in June 2005. Their “no”
vote, which followed French voters’ rejection of the constitution, was
attributed to a variety of uncertainties over greater European integration,
including immigration issues.
Balkenende’s coalition government
collapsed in late June when the Democrats 66 withdrew in protest over the
hardline stance of the immigration minister, Rita Verdonk. The Democrats 66
objected to Verdonk’s treatment of a Somali-born former member of parliament,
Ayaan Hirsi Ali, who had admitted to falsifying her application for amnesty.
Consequently, Balkenende and his government resigned, and parliamentary
elections originally scheduled for May 2007 were held early, in November
2006.
The CDA fared well in the elections,
placing first with 41 seats of the parliament’s 150 seats. Other parties winning
representation included the Labor Party (33 seats), the Socialist Party (25
seats), and the VVD (22 seats). Negotiations to form a ruling coalition headed
by the CDA were expected to take some time.
No comments:
Post a Comment