I | INTRODUCTION |
Nepal, officially Kingdom of Nepal, constitutional
monarchy in South Asia. Locked within the rugged ranges of the Himalayas, Nepal
is bounded by the Tibet region of China on the north and India on the south,
east, and west. It was cut off from the rest of the world until the early 1950s,
when a palace revolution and the subsequent overthrow of the autocratic Rana
dynasty marked the beginning of Nepal’s emergence into the modern world.
Kathmandu is the capital and largest city.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
Nepal covers an area of 147,181 sq km
(56,827 sq mi). It is divided into four topographical zones: the Great
Himalayas, the Middle Himalayas, the Outer Himalayas, and the Tarāi. The highest
zone is the Great Himalayas, in northern Nepal. Eight of the ten highest
mountains in the world are located either wholly or partially in this area.
These include Mount Everest (8,850 m/29,035 ft), Kānchenjunga (8,598 m/28,209
ft), Makālu (8,481 m/27,825 ft), Dhaulāgiri (8,172 m/26,811 ft), and Annapūrna 1
(8,091 m/26,545 ft).
To the south of the Great Himalayas are the
Middle Himalayas, dominated in Nepal by the Mahābhārat Range, with peaks
averaging less than 3,000 m (9,900 ft). Several rivers run through Nepal’s
Middle Himalayas including the Seti, Karnali, Bheri, Kali Gandaki, Trisuli, Sun
Kosi, Arun, and Tamur. In the Middle Himalayan zone most rivers converge and
form four main river systems: the Karnali, Narayani, Gandaki, and Kosi, which
traverse the Mahābhārat Range through deep gorges, making navigation difficult
or impossible.
South of the Middle Himalayas lies the
Siwālik Range of the Outer Himalayas, with an average elevation of about 1,000
to 2,000 m (about 3,300 to 6,600 ft). This area of Nepal has a number of flat
valleys well suited to agriculture.
The Tarāi, a generally flat, fertile
lowland, is the southernmost topographic zone in Nepal. Much of this area
comprises the northern extension of the Gangetic Plain of India. Rivers rising
in the Himalayas emerge in the Tarāi and continue southward, some of them
becoming tributaries of the Ganges in northern India. The Tarāi is susceptible
to flooding, which occurs regularly with the summer monsoon runoff from the
mountains. The fertile soils of the Tarāi make up a major agricultural area
where nearly half the country’s population lives.
A | Plant and Animal Life |
Forests occupy 25 percent of Nepal’s land
area. The Tarāi supports extensive hardwood and bamboo forests in areas not
cleared for agriculture or resettlement. On the lower slopes of the mountains,
pines flourish amid oaks and wildflowers. Firs and shrubs thrive in the higher
regions, most notably the tree rhododendron, Nepal’s national flower, which
produces beautiful red and pink blooms from March to April. Smaller plants, such
as mosses and grasses, grow at elevations above 3,700 m (12,000 ft). Above the
snow line of the Great Himalayas (higher than about 4,300 m/about 15,000 ft) no
vegetation grows.
Deforestation is a major problem in Nepal.
The country lost half its forests between 1950 and 1980 because of increased
demand for fodder, fuelwood, and land for agriculture and settlement. Much of
the deforestation has taken place in the Tarāi, although the Middle and Great
Himalayan regions have also experienced serious deforestation. With the
assistance of the United States and international agencies, Nepal has embarked
on several programs to extend and restore its forest cover.
The wildlife of the Tarāi includes tigers,
leopards, deer, and elephants. The Royal Chitwan National Park, located in the
Tarāi, was set aside to house and protect endangered wildlife such as the
rhinoceros, tiger, sloth bear, gaur (a large species of ox), and Ganges River
dolphin. Wild goats, sheep, and wolves live at higher elevations, and yak are
herded by local people.
B | Natural Resources |
Fertile soils are limited to the Tarāi and
some of the larger valleys of the Middle Himalayas. Some 16.5 percent of the
country’s total land area is cultivated—a figure that includes hillsides with
thin, poor soils terraced for farming. Due to population pressure, the
percentage of Nepal’s cultivated area has increased from only 10 percent in the
1960s.
Nepal’s mineral resources are limited.
Low-grade deposits of iron ore are found in the mountains near Kathmandu. Small
deposits of copper exist in many areas and small reserves of mica have been
found in the hills northeast of Kathmandu. Mineral extraction and transport is a
major problem due to the country’s rugged terrain.
C | Climate |
Nepal’s climate varies according to
elevation. The Tarāi of southern Nepal has a tropical monsoon climate
characterized by rainy summers and the southwest winds of the monsoon, and
almost dry winters. The effect of the southern monsoon climate extends northward
into mountain valleys. In the Middle Himalayan valleys the amount of
precipitation varies with the extent of exposure to the rain-bearing monsoon
winds. Several high valleys located in the rain shadow (area where precipitation
is partially blocked by mountains) are dry. In the Kathmandu Valley the average
rainfall is about 2,300 mm (about 90 in), most of which occurs from June to
September. Between elevations of about 500 and 2,700 m (about 1,640 and 8,860
ft) there is a warm temperate climate; between about 2,700 and 3,000 m (about
8,860 and 9,840 ft) a cool temperate climate prevails. Between about 3,500 and
4,100 m (about 11,480 and 13,450 ft) summers are cool and winters are very cold.
Above 4,100 m (about 13,450 ft) a severely cold, alpine climate prevails.
III | THE PEOPLE OF NEPAL |
Nepal had a population of 18,462,081 at the
time of the 1991 census. The average population density at the time was 125
persons per sq km (329 per sq mi), although nearly half the people were
concentrated in the narrow Tarāi region. In contrast, the 2008 population
estimate was 29,519,114. The population has grown rapidly since 1950, when there
were only 9 million people. Although the government has sponsored family
planning since the 1950s, these programs have been slow to affect Nepal’s
population growth. In 2008 the population was increasing at an annual rate of
2.1 percent. Only 16 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 2005.
Major cities include Kathmandu, Lalitpur (Patan), Bhaktapur, Birātnagar, and
Bīrganj.
A | Ethnic Groups, Languages, and Religion |
Nepal’s indigenous population consists of
two major groups, the Indo-Nepalese, whose ancestors migrated into the country
from the south, and the Tibeto-Nepalese, whose ancestors entered Nepal from the
north. Although intermingling between the two groups has occurred, cultural,
linguistic, and religious differences exist both between and within the two
groups.
The Indo-Nepalese group comprises people
who speak Sanskrit-derived languages and are strict adherents to Hinduism.
Nepali, the official language, is derived from Sanskrit. Differences within the
Indo-Nepalese group are marked more by caste (a system of social hierarchy) than
by ethnicity. The Tibeto-Nepalese group comprises several different ethnic
groups including Newar, Bhutia, Sherpa, Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Rai, and Limbu
people. Although most of the Tibeto-Nepalese speak Nepali, each ethnic group
also has its own language.
While the majority of Nepali people
practice Hinduism, the official religion, a strong shamanist element remains in
the religious practices of many Tibeto-Nepalese ethnic groups (see
Shaman). Buddhism is also important within the country. Buddha, the founder
of Buddhism, was born in Lumbinī, in present-day Nepal. There is also a small
Muslim population mainly located in the Tarāi.
B | Education |
Under the Rana dynasty, which ruled Nepal
from 1846 to 1951, only the upper class had access to education. After the 1951
revolution, Nepal established an education system with free primary education
for all children. Primary school begins at the age of 6 and lasts until age 10.
Secondary education that follows lasts until the age of 15. Attendance of
primary school was nearly universal in 2002–2003. Secondary school enrollment
included only 45 percent (50 percent of the boys of that age group and 39
percent of the girls) in 2002–2003.
Formal schooling in Nepal is constrained
by economic and cultural factors such as a bias against educating girls and a
need for children to work at home or in the fields. In 2005 the literacy rate
was estimated at 47 percent of the adult population, with a large gap between
male and female literacy rates. Only 30 percent of the female population was
literate in 2005 compared to 65 percent of the males. Urban areas have higher
literacy rates than rural areas. In 1990 Nepal launched a 12-year literacy
program targeting 8 million people between the ages of 6 and 45 years old.
Tribhuvan University, founded in
Kathmandu in 1959, is the only doctoral-granting institution of higher education
in Nepal. Nepal also has a number of colleges, all of which are either
affiliated with, or follow standards set by, Tribhuvan University.
C | Way of Life |
Nepal’s society is predominantly rural.
Social life in the village revolves around the family, which is headed by the
father. Extended families sometimes break apart as sons separate from parents
and brothers from each other in search of additional land. Family property is
divided equally among sons at the time of separation. Consequently, family land
holdings are extremely fragmented. Villagers often pool resources and labor to
implement village-level projects such as irrigation ditches or channels. Rice is
the food staple in most parts of the country. Barley, millet, and potatoes are
important food staples in the Himalayas.
In Nepal women are generally subordinate
to men and have less access to education, economic resources, and political
power. Their plight, however, varies from one ethnic group to another. Among
Tibeto-Nepalese communities female status is relatively better than in
Indo-Nepalese communities. Generally, women work harder and longer than men,
taking care of household chores, fetching water and animal fodder, and farming.
Women in upper-class families, however, have maids who do household work and
other menial chores.
A revival of artistic and intellectual
expression occurred in Nepal after the overthrow of Rana rule in the early
1950s. Nepali works of poetry and literature emphasize patriotism and national
pride. Hindu and Buddhist religious values inspire the expression of Nepali
artists. The lives of gods, saints, and heroes and the relationship of the
individual to society and the universe are explored in sculpture, architecture,
and drama. Numerous temples and shrines in the Kathmandu Valley display the
skill and highly developed aesthetic sense of Nepali artists. Favorite
recreational activities of the Nepali include music and dance. Religious
ceremonies involve the use of drums and musical instruments preserved since
ancient times. In rural areas devotional songs are an important part of cultural
life. Radio Nepal schedules folk music programs to foster the traditional
culture of the country.
IV | ECONOMY |
The United Nations (UN) classifies Nepal as
one of the least developed countries in the world. The country’s gross domestic
product (GDP) was $8.9 billion in 2006, with an estimated per capita GDP of
$323.40. Several factors have contributed to Nepal’s underdevelopment, including
its landlocked geography, rugged terrain, lack of natural resources, and poor
infrastructure. China, India, Japan, the United States, and several European
nations have made large investments in Nepal’s economy through foreign aid since
1952. Still, the country’s economic growth has been slow.
Nepal’s economy is characterized by heavy
dependence on foreign aid, a narrow range of exports, increasing economic
disparity between the mountain areas and the more developed Tarāi region,
excessive governmental control and regulation, and inefficient public
enterprises and administration. In addition, the economy has not kept pace with
the country’s high population growth. In particular, the slow growth of
agriculture has resulted in food shortages and malnutrition for some of Nepal’s
people.
A | Agriculture and Manufacturing |
Agriculture dominates Nepal’s economy. It
provides a livelihood for 79 percent of the population and contributes 34
percent of GDP. The Tarāi is the main farming region of the country. Rice and
corn are major food crops; potato, oilseed, sugarcane, jute, and tobacco are
major cash crops. Nepal’s industrial base is limited. Most industries are based
on agricultural raw materials or dependent on various imported materials, mostly
from India. Large manufacturing plants are owned and operated by the government.
Major manufactured products include jute, sugar, cigarettes, beer, matches,
shoes, cement, and bricks. Traditional cottage industries such as basket and
carpet weaving are also important to Nepal’s economy.
B | Services |
Tourism represents a growing sector of the
economy. Foreign tourism is primarily confined to Kathmandu Valley and major
national parks such as the Sagarmatha National Park (around the Mount Everest
area), Annapūrna Conservation Area, and Royal Chitwan National Park. Tourism has
created demands for services and materials that are slowly changing the ecology,
environment, and economy of the Himalayan region. Sherpas, well known for
assisting as guides on Himalayan treks and mountain-climbing expeditions,
benefit from Nepal’s growing popularity as a tourist destination.
A unique part of Nepal’s economy are the
famous Gurkha mercenaries. Beginning with a treaty signed with
British-controlled India in the early 1800s, young Nepali men served in the
British, and later Indian, armies. Known for their brave fighting skills, these
mercenaries have fought in nearly every major war, and with UN peacekeeping
forces. Nepal receives more than $50 million in hard currency annually from
soldiers’ salaries sent home, pensions, and other Gurkha-related payments.
C | Energy |
Most of the energy consumed in Nepal comes
from traditional sources such as fuelwood, the use of which contributes to
deforestation. Tremendous potential exists for hydroelectric power development,
but growth is inhibited by terrain, lack of infrastructure, and insufficient
capital investment. Nepal has harnessed only a fraction of its potential
hydropower; however, a major hydroelectric facility was under construction on
the Kali Gandaki River in western Nepal in the early 2000s. The country is
heavily reliant on India for imported, nonrenewable sources of power such as oil
and kerosene.
D | Transportation and Communications |
Nepal has a relatively underdeveloped
network of roads. There are some main roads, which connect major cities and
stretch to the borders of both India and China. However, the main means of
transportation is the network of footpaths and trails that interlace the
mountains and valleys. There is also a small railway along the Indian border.
The government-owned Royal Nepal Airlines was the only commercial airline until
1992, when the government permitted other airlines to operate. Now a number of
airlines provide domestic service between Nepal’s major cities as well as to its
remote regions. International service is available to India, Singapore, Hong
Kong, Thailand, Pakistan, and Japan. Tribhuvan International Airport outside
Kathmandu is the main airport. There are also several smaller airstrips serving
domestic air travel in Nepal.
Nepal has limited telecommunication
services. Postal services have improved in recent years but are still
inaccessible to many Nepalese. Few people own telephones, although most urban
areas have public telephone services. Radio Nepal broadcasts programs in Nepali
and English to more than 90 percent of the population. Television programming is
limited, but programs from overseas are available via satellite in remote parts
of the country. The major newspapers in Nepal include the Gorkhapatra,
Kantipur, and Daily Times; freedom of the press was guaranteed under
Nepal’s 1990 constitution.
E | Foreign Trade |
For geographical and historical reasons,
most of Nepal’s trade is with India. Attempts have been made to diversify trade
by making new agreements with China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the United States,
the United Kingdom, Singapore, Thailand, Germany, and Japan. Nepal has a growing
trade deficit with India. Major exports are clothing, carpets, grain, and
leather goods. Major imports are petroleum products, fertilizer, and
machinery.
F | Currency and Banking |
Nepal’s monetary unit is the Nepalese
rupee (72.80 Nepalese rupees equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). It is issued
from the country’s central bank, Nepal Rastra Bank (founded in 1956). Indian
rupees are still used in Nepal, although less widely than before trade disputes
between the two countries in 1989.
V | GOVERNMENT |
Nepal’s government is a constitutional
monarchy. In response to major pro-democracy protests, Nepal adopted a new
constitution in 1990 that established a multiparty democracy but preserved the
king’s status as chief of state. The 1990 constitution ended nearly 30 years of
absolute monarchy in which the king dominated Nepal’s politics and political
parties were banned. Nepal has universal suffrage beginning at the age of
18.
A | Executive and Legislature |
Executive powers are vested in the king and
a council of ministers, composed of a prime minister and other ministers. In
2006 parliament forced the monarch to give up absolute power and rendered him
largely a figurehead. An interim constitution assigned most of the king’s powers
to the prime minister, the leader of the majority party in parliament. After
general elections in 2008, a constituent assembly was expected to draft a new
constitution and decide whether to retain the monarchy.
Nepal’s 1990 constitution established a
bicameral (two-chamber) legislature consisting of a house of representatives and
a national council. The House of Representatives had 205 members directly
elected by the voters. The National Council had 60 members: 10 nominated by the
king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives, and 15 elected by an electoral
council. Members of parliament served five-year terms unless the parliament is
dissolved earlier upon recommendation of the prime minister.
B | Judiciary |
The judiciary is made up of three tiers:
the Supreme Court, appellate courts, and district courts. The Supreme Court is
the highest court. The chief justice was appointed by the king on the
recommendation of the Constitutional Council, but that power was granted to the
prime minister in 2006. Other judges of the three courts are appointed on the
recommendation of the Judicial Council.
C | Political Parties |
Major political parties include the Nepali
Congress Party (NCP), a reform-oriented centrist party, and the Communist Party
of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist), or CPN-UML. Both of these parties operated
illegally in Nepal from exile in India until the 1990 reforms lifted the ban on
political parties. The royalist National Democratic Party (NDP) was formed prior
to the first democratic elections in 1991. In 1998 a faction within the CPN-UML
broke away to form a new party, the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist),
or CPN-ML. Also that year, the NDP split into two rival factions with the
creation of the NDP (Chand). In 2002 a breakaway faction of the NCP formed the
Nepali Congress Democratic (NCD).
D | Social Services |
Nepal has significant health care problems
and receives aid through foreign agencies and religious groups. Diseases and
chronic infections have been particularly prevalent in rural areas, including
goiter, tuberculosis, and dysentery. Cases of leprosy continue to exist in some
areas. Another chronic problem in Nepal is malnutrition, which is particularly
severe in hill and mountain regions where people often experience food
shortages.
E | Defense |
In 2004 Nepal’s defense force consisted of
an army of about 69,000. There is no air force, although the army operates a
small military wing. Military service is not compulsory.
F | International Organizations |
Nepal has been a member of the United
Nations since 1955 and participates in several international agencies such as
the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the World Health
Organization; and the Economic Council for Asia and the Far East. In 1961 Nepal
became a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(World Bank). Kathmandu is the permanent seat of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation.
VI | HISTORY |
Although Nepal emerged in history in the
first millennium bc, it was only
in the 18th century that Nepal developed as a country of the present size.
Archaeological remains suggest that areas of Nepal have been inhabited for more
than 10,000 years. The Kirant hill tribe people are thought to be the first
rulers of the Kathmandu area. The earliest undisputed Nepali dynasty is the
Licchavi dynasty, which was established in about ad 400. The Licchavi dynasty, which
probably migrated from present-day Vaishāli, India, was centered in the
Kathmandu Valley. The Licchavi dynasty expanded its influence to the Kali
Gandaki River in the west and Sun Kosi River in the east. The Licchavi period,
as well as the Malla period that followed, was deeply influenced by Indian
culture.
The Licchavi dynasty came to an end in the
late 9th century and was followed by the medieval period. The early medieval era
was unstable and poorly documented. It culminated in the Malla period (1200 to
1769) when three separate dynasties, divided into three kingdoms in the late
15th century, were conquered by the Shah dynasty in 1769, led by King Prithvi
Narayan Shah. Nepal’s southward expansion under the Shah dynasty resulted in a
clash with the English East India Company. The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816)
reduced the country to its current size, although Nepal retained its
independence.
A | Rana Autocracy |
In the first half of the 19th century,
Nepal entered a short period of instability that culminated in the Kot Massacre,
in which fighting broke out among military personnel and administrators after
the assassination of a high-powered favorite of the queen. Jung Bahadur, a
strong pro-British leader, prevailed during the massacre and seized control of
the country. He declared himself prime minister and began the Rana dynasty of
rulers. The Rana rulers monopolized power by making the king a nominal figure.
They also made the office of the prime minister hereditary.
Nepal gave valuable assistance to the
British during the Sepoy Rebellion (1857-1859) and during World War I
(1914-1918). The British government reaffirmed the independence of Nepal through
a treaty in 1923. A British resident (colonial official acting as an adviser to
the ruler of a protected state), stationed in Kathmandu, controlled Nepal’s
foreign relations. Nepal supported the Allied cause, with the contribution of
Gurkha soldiers, during World War II (1939-1945). Nepal and the United States
established diplomatic relations in 1948.
The Rana autocracy was increasingly
criticized in the late 1940s, particularly by dissidents residing in India. The
political-reform movement, which was approved by the Indian government and
directed by the newly created Nepali Congress Party (NCP), won the support of
King Bir Bikram Tribhuvana. Like his predecessors under the Ranas, he possessed
purely nominal powers. His intervention in domestic politics deepened the
crisis, however, and he was removed from the throne in 1950 by Prime Minister
Maharaja Mohan Shumsher Rana. A few days later the king fled to India and NCP
insurgents began military operations along the southern frontier. In 1951 Prime
Minister Rana allowed a reorganization of the Nepalese government along
democratic lines and the king was reinstalled. Friction between the Rana and
Congress Party factions culminated in November 1951 when Prime Minister Rana was
removed from power and the NCP formed a government headed by Matrika Prasad
Koirala.
B | Absolute Monarchy |
After the Rana autocracy ended, Nepal
embarked on a mission of economic and social development. However, political
parties organizing the government during the 1950s were not effective. King
Mahendra, crowned in 1955, seized absolute control of the government in 1960
after a decade of political unrest. King Mahendra dismissed the government and
suspended parliament, calling it corrupt and inefficient. Considering a
parliamentary system unsuited to Nepal, the king proclaimed a new constitution
in 1962 that banned the formation of political parties and allowed for the
autocratic rule of the king through a nonparty system of councils, or
panchayats. The government then instituted social reforms, including land
reforms and modernization of the legal code, which helped alleviate some caste
discrimination.
When the king died in 1972, he was
succeeded by his son Birendra Bir Bikram, who was formally crowned in 1975. The
young king initially exercised strong control over the government, attempting to
repress the reform movement led by former prime minister Bisheswar Prasad
Koirala. As antimonarchist sentiments grew in the late 1970s and serious riots
challenged his authority, the king relaxed his control.
In a 1980 referendum on the form of
government, the voters decided to retain the nonparty panchayat system with
certain modifications. Among the reforms was a constitutional amendment
providing for the king to appoint a prime minister upon the recommendation of
the National Assembly. Elections under the new provisions were held in 1981 and
1986. Although all candidates ran as independents, reports indicated that
Marxist-Leninist members of the Communist Party won a number of seats in
parliament.
C | Constitutional Monarchy |
Following a wave of pro-democracy
protests spearheaded by Nepal’s banned political parties, Birendra agreed in
1990 to allow political activity. An interim government drafted a new
constitution that provided for multiple political parties. In November 1990,
with the adoption of a constitution stating the powers of the monarch, Nepal
became a constitutional monarchy.
In 1991 the Nepali Congress Party (NCP)
won the country’s first democratic election in 32 years, and the party’s general
secretary, Girija Prasad Koirala, brother of former prime minister Bisheswar
Prasad Koirala, became prime minister. Koirala resigned in 1994 after his
coalition government lost its parliamentary majority. In new elections the
Unified Marxist-Leninist (UML) branch of Nepal’s Communist Party won the
majority of seats. The UML remained in power less than a year before a coalition
government replaced it.
In 1996, a radical leftist party called
the Communist Party of Nepal—Maoist (CPN-M), unhappy with the pace and direction
of change, launched a “people’s war” aimed at overthrowing the government,
abolishing the monarchy, and establishing a people’s republic. Incidents of
violence were at first confined to remote mountain regions but by the late 1990s
had spread to more than half the country.
C1 | Political Instability |
A period of political instability
followed the declaration of the “people’s war” in 1996. One prime minister
succeeded another in a series of unstable coalition governments. Internal
fighting weakened the coalitions, as did their inability to control the Maoist
rebellion.
C2 | Royal Massacre |
In early June 2001 King Birendra and
eight other members of the royal family, including Queen Aiswarya, were fatally
shot in the royal palace in Kathmandu. An official investigation of the massacre
concluded that Crown Prince Dipendra had killed his family members in a drunken
rage and then committed suicide. Birendra’s younger brother, Gyanendra Bir
Bikram Shah, succeeded to the throne.
The Maoist insurgency intensified
following the massacre, fueled in part by popular conspiracy theories
surrounding the incident. Prime Minister Koirala, in office for the third time,
was widely criticized for embarrassing setbacks at the hands of the rebels and
for a perceived failure to provide adequate protection for the royal family. His
government was also mired in a bribery scandal.
C3 | Insurgency and Crisis |
Koirala stepped down as prime minister
in July 2001 and was succeeded by Sher Bahadur Deuba, a former prime minister
known for his willingness to work with opposition parties. Deuba began a series
of reforms, including distribution of land to the poor, and introduced plans to
criminalize discrimination against Dalits (“Untouchables”) and to end the caste
system. Deuba also initiated peace talks with the Maoist rebels, and both sides
agreed to a ceasefire. But the ceasefire ended in November 2001 after Deuba
rejected Maoist demands for a new constitution that would abolish the monarchy.
Fighting renewed and as the violence continued, King Gyanendra declared
emergency rule, which enabled him to send the royal army to fight the
insurgency. In 2002 Gyanendra dismissed Deuba, dissolved parliament, and assumed
full power over the government before appointing a new prime minister.
In January 2003 the government and the
Maoists agreed to a ceasefire and renewed negotiations. However, the ceasefire
collapsed in August, after seven months. Meantime, the political parties, which
had been excluded from the government after the dissolution of parliament, led
demonstrations in the capital, and in June 2003 Deuba was reappointed prime
minister.
The Maoist rebels intensified their
insurgency after the ceasefire collapsed in August 2003. They refused to enter
peace negotiations with Deuba, insisting on direct talks with the king, and
staged two week-long blockades of Kathmandu. In February 2005 Gyanendra again
imposed a state of emergency. He assumed full executive power, dismissing Deuba
and his government. The king also suspended many constitutional rights and
freedoms, including freedom of speech and the press.
In April 2006 massive protests took
place against direct rule by the king. In Kathmandu street demonstrations drew
hundreds of thousands of people, and government forces responded by firing into
crowds, killing more than a dozen people. The protests were spearheaded by a
seven-party opposition alliance that included the Maoist insurgents. Faced with
daily protests, a general strike, and road blockades that cut off Kathmandu from
fuel and food supplies, Gyanendra announced that he would restore parliament,
which he had dissolved four years earlier. On the recommendation of the
seven-party alliance, Gyanendra named Koirala as prime minister. The newly
reinstated parliament soon began to strip the king of his powers. The Maoist
rebels declared a three-month truce and began talks with Koirala.
C4 | Peace Agreement |
The Maoist rebels reached a peace
agreement with the Nepalese government in November 2006, ending a decade-long
revolt during which an estimated 13,000 people were killed. Under United Nations
supervision, the Maoists turned over their weapons and confined their troops in
camps. As part of the agreement, a government commission was set up to
investigate human rights abuses by both sides in the long conflict. Koirala
assigned 5 of the 22 cabinet posts in the interim government to Maoists, who
joined the government in April 2007. The government planned to nationalize the
monarch’s assets while allowing Gyanendra to keep property he owned before he
came to the throne.
Elections for a constituent assembly,
chosen by the people, were scheduled for June 2007. The assembly was to rewrite
Nepal’s constitution and decide whether Nepal would remain a monarchy or become
a republic. The Maoists, who had been pushing for an end to the monarchy, agreed
to abide by the constituent assembly’s decision. However, the elections were
subsequently postponed due to two new demands made by the Maoists: the abolition
of the monarchy ahead of the elections, and the implementation of a proportional
system of voting for the elections. The new demands contradicted the earlier
agreement and created a political deadlock. The Maoists withdrew from the
governing coalition in September 2007, and the elections were further delayed.
However, the Maoists rejoined the interim government after all of the main
parties agreed to abolish the monarchy immediately after the elections, which
were scheduled for April 2008.
No comments:
Post a Comment