I | INTRODUCTION |
New
Zealand, island nation in the South Pacific Ocean, located south of the
equator in the Southern Hemisphere, and marking the eastern boundary of the
Tasman Sea, a portion of the Pacific Ocean that separates New Zealand and the
nearest large landmass, Australia, by a distance of about 1,600 km (1,000 mi).
New Zealand includes two large islands that constitute most of its landmass, as
well as numerous small islands. New Zealand administers two overseas
territories, Tokelau and Ross Dependency (in Antarctica). The self-governing
entities of Niue and the Cook Islands are in free association with New Zealand,
which handles their foreign affairs and defense as requested.
New Zealand is known for its scenic landscapes
of snowcapped mountains and rolling green pastures. Its image as a farming
outpost stems from the traditional importance of agriculture to the economy as
well as the low population density in most areas. However, the majority of New
Zealanders live in urban areas, and many now earn a living in service industries
such as tourism. The capital of New Zealand is Wellington. The largest and most
cosmopolitan city is Auckland.
Polynesians first settled the islands of New
Zealand about 800 to 1,000 years ago. According to legend, they named the
islands Aotearoa (“Land of the Long White Cloud”). Their descendants are the
Maori. The first European settlers came from the United Kingdom, arriving in
increasing numbers after New Zealand became a colony of the British Empire in
1840. Until the mid-20th century the non-Maori population of New Zealand was
predominantly European in origin. Since then many people have migrated from the
Pacific Islands and Asia, and the ethnic composition of the country is becoming
more diverse. In 1907 New Zealand became a self-governing dominion within the
British Empire. Now an independent nation, New Zealand maintains close ties with
the United Kingdom as a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but
increasingly it sees its identity as a nation in the Pacific and Asia.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
New Zealand is part of the Pacific Islands, or
Oceania, a grouping of thousands of islands in the Pacific Ocean. The South
Island and the North Island of New Zealand are Oceania’s second and third
largest islands, respectively. New Zealand is considered part of Polynesia, one
of three major divisions of the Pacific Islands.
The total land area of New Zealand is 267,990
sq km (103,470 sq mi), about the same size as Japan or the British Isles. The
North and South islands make up almost the entire area of the country.
Separating these islands is Cook Strait, a channel between the South Pacific
Ocean on the east and the Tasman Sea on the west. The islands stretch along a
predominantly northeast by southwest axis. Their length from north to south is
about 1,600 km (1,000 mi), and their maximum width from east to west is 450 km
(280 mi).
Many small and widely scattered islands are
also included in the territory of New Zealand. Some are tiny and uninhabited. Of
the inhabited islands, Stewart Island is the largest and nearest, located about
30 km (20 mi) off the southern shore of the South Island. Campbell Island lies
600 km (375 mi) farther south, and the Chatham Islands are about 850 km (530 mi)
east of the South Island. Raoul Island, the largest of the Kermadec Islands,
lies more than 900 km (600 mi) northeast of the North Island.
The South Island contains the highest point in
New Zealand, Mount Cook (in Maori, Aorangi), reaching a height of 3,754 m
(12,316 ft) in the central Southern Alps. Another 18 mountains in the chain rise
above 3,000 m (10,000 ft). The Southern Alps extend about 500 km (300 mi),
almost the entire length of the South Island. The western side of the chain
rises at the coast, with a narrow strip of coastline between mountains and sea.
The eastern side of the chain descends to a region of rolling hills and fertile
plains, drained by numerous glacier-fed rivers. (Mount Cook contains Tasman
Glacier, the largest of about 360 glaciers in the Southern Alps.) The
east-central Canterbury Plains form the largest lowland area in the country. To
the south are the hills and plains of the Otago Plateau, which is bordered on
the west by the wilderness of Fiordland National Park. Here the southern
foothills of the Southern Alps meet a rugged coastline of fjords (fiords), or
deep, narrow coastal inlets. In the north the Alps break up into numerous
mountain ranges, with the Richmond Range continuing to the northeastern end of
the island. The Tasman Mountains form another mountain system in the northwest.
On the North Island elevations rarely exceed
1,000 m (3,000 ft), with the exception of several volcanic peaks. In the west is
Mount Taranaki (also named Mount Egmont), with an almost perfectly symmetrical
cone rising to a height of 2,518 m (8,261 ft). The central volcanic plateau
contains the peaks of Mount Ruapehu (2,797 m/9,177 ft), Mount Ngauruhoe (2,291
m/7,515 ft), and Mount Tongariro (1,968 m/6,458 ft). Many of these volcanoes are
still considered to be active even if they have not erupted in the last two
centuries. The two most recently active volcanoes are Mount Ruapehu and White
Island (in Maori, Whakaari). Mount Ruapehu, the highest point of the North
Island, erupted with substantial clouds of ash in 1995 and 1996, and dangerous
lahars (concrete-like mixtures of volcanic ash and mud) occasionally
slide down its slopes. White Island is the peak of a submerged volcano in the
Bay of Plenty, off the east coast of the North Island. Visitors to White Island
can witness constant low-intensity volcanic activity.
A | Geology |
New Zealand is located within the Ring of
Fire, a region encircling the Pacific Ocean where the movement of tectonic
plates (huge segments of Earth’s crust) leads to volcanic and seismic activity.
The Pacific and Indo-Australian tectonic plates meet at New Zealand, but their
movements are significantly different under the two main islands. At the South
Island the plates converge in a mostly lateral, or sideways, movement. This
created the Southern Alps by uplifting and folding oceanic sediment. At the
North Island, however, the Pacific plate is folding under the other plate. This
subduction has forced volcanic activity to the surface. Scientific evidence
shows that the North Island has had a number of huge volcanic eruptions over the
last 30,000 years. Two huge eruptions 26,000 years ago and nearly 1,000 years
ago created the deep crater that is now Lake Taupo; the latter eruption is
considered to be one of the largest in history. Volcanic activity continues
today in the island’s central region. Geysers and hot springs (signs of
geothermal activity) are also found throughout the region, and earthquakes are
frequent but generally moderate.
New Zealand was once part of the ancient
super-continent Gondwanaland, which also included Africa, Madagascar, India,
Australia, Antarctica, and South America. Plate tectonics began to break up
Gondwanaland around 170 million years ago during the Jurassic Period. The New
Zealand landmass remained attached to Antarctica until around 82 million years
ago during the Cretaceous Period. The small landmass then broke off, drifted
northward, and became isolated from the rest of the world. Around 35 million
years ago, during the Oligocene Epoch, large portions of New Zealand were
underwater, leaving perhaps only 20 percent of the modern area as dry land.
Thousands of years ago during the ice ages the land area of New Zealand was
larger than now and the two islands were connected as a single body when world
sea levels were as much as 135 m (450 ft) lower.
B | Coastline |
The coastline of New Zealand is about
15,134 km (9,400 mi) in length. The North Island coastline has many bays,
harbors, and inlets. The coastline is highly irregular in the region of
Northland, a 330-km-long (205-mi-long) peninsular extension to the northwest of
Auckland. The chief seaports of Auckland and Wellington overlook natural
harbors. The South Island coastline is more regular in parts, although
exceptions include Fiordland in the southwest, where glaciers long ago carved
deep valleys that the ocean flooded to form fjords, and the Marlborough Sounds
in the northeast, an area of many sheltered inlets and islands.
C | Rivers and Lakes |
Lake Taupo is the largest lake in New
Zealand. It covers an area of 606 sq km (234 sq mi) in the central volcanic
plateau of the North Island. The lake occupies the crater of an extinct volcano
and reaches a depth of 162 m (531 ft). Its outlet is the north-flowing Waikato
River, the country’s longest river. The Waikato flows to the northwest for a
distance of 425 km (264 mi) and empties into the Tasman Sea. It has been dammed
in several places for hydroelectricity generation, and its drainage basin is one
of the country’s most fertile agricultural areas.
The largest lake of the South Island is Te
Anau, covering an area of 344 sq km (133 sq mi). Te Anau and many other South
Island lakes are glacially carved troughs on the eastern flank of the Southern
Alps. Several of these lakes are part of the upper Waitaki River hydroelectric
system. Water from Lake Manapouri, south of Te Anau, is also harnessed for
hydroelectricity.
Most of the rivers of the South Island
originate in the pristine glacial lakes of the Southern Alps and flow generally
southeastward to empty into the Pacific Ocean. The Clutha River, the largest
river of the island at a length of 336 km (209 mi), originates at Lake Wanaka
and is fed by several tributaries as it flows southward across Otago Province.
The Clutha River discharges the largest volume of water of any river in New
Zealand and has been dammed in a number of places for hydroelectricity
generation. North of the Clutha, the Waitaki River crosses the Canterbury Plains
in central South Island. Its huge catchment area is one of the most valuable
hydroelectric power resources in the country. It and other rivers to the north
formed the Canterbury Plains by redistributing vast quantities of gravel from
the Southern Alps. They occupy wide gravel beds and are navigable only by
jetboat, a flat-bottomed boat that skims the surface of shallow waters. The
rivers provide a source of irrigation water for the crops and grasslands of the
agricultural region.
D | Plant and Animal Life |
The long geographical isolation of New
Zealand had a profound effect on its plant and animal life. When New Zealand
broke away from the last part of Gondwanaland around 82 million years ago, it
carried with it plants and animals from the Age of Dinosaurs—most famously
primitive tree ferns and the tuatara, a lizardlike reptile that emerged more
than 200 million years ago. However, the fossil record on the islands is
relatively sparse and is particularly fragmentary for land animals. Only a few
bones show that dinosaurs and flying reptiles once lived on New Zealand. Better
known are remains of giant extinct marine reptiles from the Mesozoic Era such as
mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. Fossils of early whales that lived during the
following Cenozoic Era have also been recovered.
Scientists once thought that snakes and
nonflying mammals had not reached New Zealand before it broke away from the rest
of Gondwanaland. However, recently discovered fossils show that snakes,
crocodiles, and primitive nonflying mammals survived on New Zealand as late as
16 million years ago during the Miocene Epoch. Later climate change apparently
killed off these three groups, leaving birds as the dominant land animals and
bats as the only indigenous nonmarine mammals. The tuatara survives nowhere else
in the world but on a few islands off the coast of New Zealand.
The plant life of New Zealand includes
about 1,500 indigenous species found nowhere else in the world, including the
golden kowhai and the scarlet pohutukawa. Also notable among the native plants
are tree ferns and primitive araucarian pines, both holdovers from the Age of
Dinosaurs. The number of introduced plant species now rivals the number
of indigenous species, however. Some introduced species, such as the furze
(gorse), a thorny evergreen shrub, have acclimated so well in New Zealand that
they have become a menace, spreading quickly and displacing indigenous
vegetation. Most of the indigenous trees and shrubs of New Zealand are
evergreen, including the kauri, rimu, kahikatea, and totara. Original
mixed-evergreen forests remain in only the remotest areas of the North Island
and in the Southern Alps. Beech trees predominate on the western slopes of the
Southern Alps. Radiata pine, a fast-growing timber tree imported from
California, is found in large reforestation plantations on the central volcanic
plateau of the North Island. Sown grasses predominate in many lowland plains and
on the eastern flanks of the Southern Alps up to an elevation of about 1,500 m
(5,000 ft).
Isolation from other landmasses allowed
birds, bats, and small reptiles to flourish in the absence of predatory mammals.
Without such ground predators, many bird species in New Zealand became
flightless or semi-flightless, often nesting on the ground. Most famous of the
flightless birds were the giant ostrichlike moas, which grew as tall as 4 m (13
ft) and weighed up to 250 kg (550 lb). The largest flying bird and top predator
was the extinct giant Haast’s eagle, which had a 3-m (10-ft) wingspan and 7.5-cm
(3-in) claws. It likely preyed on moas. Many of these birds, including the moas
and giant eagles, became extinct after people colonized the islands. Some
species such as the moa were hunted to extinction, while others suffered from
the destruction of habitat and the introduction of foreign predators, such as
rats and stoats. Some flightless birds have survived, however, including the
kiwi, a nocturnal bird that is the national emblem; the kakapo, the world’s
largest parrot; and the weka and the takahe, both large species of rail.
However, many of the remaining indigenous species are in danger of becoming
extinct. Some are officially protected as endangered species, and the government
has designated nature reserves for the preservation of natural habitat.
Native songbirds such as the bellbird and
tui also contribute to the country’s large population of wild birds. The
sparrow, blackbird, thrush, skylark, magpie, and myna are well-acclimatized
imported species. New Zealand also abounds in a great variety of seabirds, such
as the albatross, and numerous migratory birds. Six species of penguins inhabit
the islands and rugged coastlines around New Zealand, including the yellow-eyed
penguin, found only in New Zealand, and the blue penguin, the smallest penguin
in the world.
Many marine mammals populate the waters
around New Zealand. Among the species of dolphins, whales, and seals are
Hector’s dolphin and the New Zealand sea lion, which are found nowhere else.
The humpback whale and the southern right whale were once numerous in New
Zealand’s offshore waters, but these species never recovered from the intensive
commercial whaling that took place in the 19th century.
The only surviving indigenous land mammals
in New Zealand are bats. All other wild land mammals now in New Zealand arrived
with humans. The Maori brought rats and dogs with them when they reached the
islands. The rats were originally used as food but escaped into the wild. The
Maori dog became extinct after Europeans arrived. The rest of the modern wild
animals are descended from imported species brought by Europeans in the 18th and
19th centuries: deer, rabbits, goats, pigs, weasels, ferrets, and opossums. The
populations of some introduced mammals, such as rabbits and the Australian
opossum, have reached plague proportions. Feral cats are a threat to native
birds.
In addition to the tuatara, the other
reptiles native to New Zealand are small lizards (geckos and skinks), and
turtles and tortoises. No snakes now inhabit the islands and special care is
taken to prevent snakes from being accidentally introduced in cargo from
Australia and other regions. A few native species of frogs also survive.
Unique to the islands are the cricketlike
wetas, giant insects that play an ecological role similar to that of small
rodents elsewhere. Venomous insects are rare but the introduced German yellow
jacket and English wasp have become serious pests. The bumblebee was brought to
New Zealand to pollinate imported clover.
The rivers and lakes of New Zealand have a
variety of fish, including whitebait, eel, and freshwater crustaceans,
particularly crayfish. Trout and salmon are imported species. The surrounding
ocean waters are the habitat of many species, including the snapper, flounder,
blue cod, hapuku, tarakihi, swordfish, and shark, as well as edible shellfish
such as the oyster, mussel, paua (abalone), and toheroa. The giant squid appears
to be fairly abundant in the deep waters—more than 100 specimens have been
caught off the coast of South Island in recent decades.
E | Natural Resources |
Land is one of the country’s most valuable
resources. Much of the soil is not naturally fertile, however, and has to be
supplemented with fertilizers for crop cultivation. More than half of the land
area is either cropland or pastureland. Most of the arable land is found on the
east coasts of both islands, in particular the Canterbury Plains. Pastures for
livestock grazing dominate in north-central and western North Island and
southern South Island.
About 31 percent of the land area is
forested. The country has 6.4 million hectares (15.8 million acres) of
old-growth forest, much of which is designated for preservation. In addition,
some forests are plantations of imported species such as the radiata pine. The
western Southern Alps of the South Island constitute the largest forested area
of the country and include extensive areas of native forest. The North Island
has native forest mainly in more remote areas, notably around Mount Taranaki and
in isolated pockets of Northland.
New Zealand rivers and lakes are an
important natural resource as the source of hydroelectricity. Mineral resources
are limited, with some reserves of coal, gold, iron ore, and limestone.
Significant stocks of natural gas and less plentiful reserves of oil are located
both offshore and in the western region of the North Island.
F | Climate |
New Zealand’s location in the Southern
Hemisphere, or south of the equator, means that its seasons are opposite to
those in the Northern Hemisphere. The warmest months of summer are January and
February and the coldest months of winter are June and July. New Zealand is
located in the Southern Temperate Zone, south of the tropics. It has a mild
climate with four seasons. Inland areas have cooler winters and warmer summers
than coastal areas, where the moderating influence of the ocean creates a more
temperate climate.
Temperatures tend to be warmer in the north
than in the south; the warmest area is in the extreme northern end of the North
Island, and the coldest area is on the southwestern slopes of the Southern Alps.
In most of the country, however, there are only minimal climatic differences
between north and south. Average low winter temperatures range from 2°C (35°F)
in Christchurch, on the South Island’s central east coast, to 8°C (46°F) in
Auckland, in the northwest of the North Island. Average high summer temperatures
are 23°C (73°F) in Auckland and 21°C (70°F) in Christchurch.
New Zealand is located in the “Roaring
Forties” wind belt, an area between latitudes 40° and 50° south where westerly
winds sweep across the southern oceans. The prevailing westerly winds bring
moisture from the ocean, resulting in heavy rainfall on the western coasts,
especially on the South Island. The main divide of the Southern Alps receives
the most precipitation in the country. The mountains form a natural barrier to
weather patterns from the west; in the eastern rain shadow of the mountains, the
westerly winds become warm, dry, and gusty. The east coasts are therefore much
drier than the west coasts, and eastern areas of the South Island have some of
New Zealand’s sunniest, driest weather. Average annual rainfall in Christchurch
is about 638 mm (25 in), compared to 2,906 mm (114 in) in Hokitika, on the west
coast. Auckland receives 1,247 mm (49 in) of rain annually.
Although the westerly winds prevail, the
eastern part of the country is open to frequent southerlies, wind
currents drawing cold air up from the Antarctic. Usually they bring rain, a
sharp fall in temperature, and in winter, snow in the mountains. The
northernmost extension of the North Island is subject to the tail end of
tropical weather systems from the Pacific, and temperatures there are warm
year-round, in most places never reaching the freezing point.
G | Environmental Issues |
New Zealand has a reputation as “clean and
green” because of its relatively small population and unspoiled alpine scenery.
However, the country faces real environmental issues. Industrial and
agricultural discharges into waterways, notably the Waikato River, have led to
water pollution in some areas. Air pollution from motor-vehicle and industrial
emissions is a concern in the large cities, such as Auckland. In addition,
widespread clearing of the original mixed-evergreen forests—both for timber and
to create more agricultural land—has led to loss of wildlife habitat. The
practice also led to severe soil erosion, a problem the government has attempted
to solve through reforestation programs. However, targeted reforestation areas
have been replanted with fast-growing nonindigenous species.
New Zealanders have pioneered conservation
efforts, clearing offshore islands of rats and other predators to help native
birds survive. New Zealanders also have a tradition of environmental activism.
In the 1980s grass-roots opposition to the construction of new hydroelectric
power stations led the government to suspend plans for future projects. New
Zealand relies heavily on hydroelectric power, which is generally regarded as
clean energy. Many New Zealanders opposed the construction of new dams, however,
because they alter the natural flow of rivers and are environmentally
disruptive. Controversy over the building of new dams was an important factor in
the creation of a new tier of regional government in 1989 to help implement
resource-management provisions designed to foster long-term sustainability. The
antinuclear lobby is also a potent force in New Zealand. There are no nuclear
reactors in the country, and nuclear-armed or nuclear-powered vessels are not
allowed in the ports.
The government-managed national parks
program was significantly reorganized and expanded in 1987. Nearly one-quarter
of the country’s land area is protected in government-designated national parks
and reserves, including some of the country’s wetlands, mangrove swamps, coastal
areas, and native forest. New Zealand works with the World Heritage Fund to
preserve the World Heritage Site of Te Wahipounamu. This internationally
designated preservation area includes several locations in the Southern Alps,
including some areas of indigenous forests and two alpine national parks, as
well as the coastal fjords. In addition, some areas have been designated for the
protection of wildlife, including the Royal Albatross Sanctuary on the southern
coast of the South Island, the world’s largest mainland breeding ground for the
royal albatross.
New Zealand is actively engaged in helping
to preserve the fragile marine habitats and ecosystems of the South Pacific
Ocean. The country has ratified a number of international environmental
agreements on topics such as biodiversity, marine dumping, and whaling.
III | PEOPLE AND SOCIETY |
According to the 2001 census, New Zealand
had a population of 3,820,749. The country has a low population density, with an
average of 16 persons per sq km (40 per sq mi). About three-quarters of all New
Zealanders live in the North Island, even though it is smaller than the South
Island, because the largest cities and industries are located there.
About 86 percent of the people of New
Zealand live in urban areas. More than half of the urban population lives in the
country’s five largest cities—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Hamilton, and
Dunedin. Auckland, by far the largest and most cosmopolitan city in the country,
has a consistently higher growth rate than the other cities. It is an important
seaport and industrial center. Wellington is the seat of national government and
a hub for domestic transportation and commercial shipping. Both cities are
located in the North Island, with Auckland in the northwest and Wellington in
the southeast. Hamilton, a short distance south of Auckland, is a center for
dairy farming. The largest city in the South Island is Christchurch, on the
eastern coast, and the wool-processing, educational, and tourism center of
Dunedin is located farther south.
A | Ethnic Groups and Languages |
New Zealanders of European descent, who
are often known by the Maori name Pakeha, comprise about 75 percent of the
population. They are usually described as the largest ethnic group, but in fact
they are ethnically mixed. People of English, Scottish, and Irish descent
comprise the largest groups (in that order), but there are also people of
German, Australian, Scandinavian, Croatian, and Dutch descent.
Maori, the original inhabitants of New
Zealand, are the largest non-European group. They are a Polynesian people whose
ancestors first settled the islands in about ad 1100. Their share of the population
declined precipitously in the 19th century, after European colonization of the
islands, but it rebounded dramatically during the 20th century from less than 5
percent in 1900 to about 15 percent in 2000.
Pacific Islanders and East Asians each
account for about 5 percent of the population. Large-scale Pacific Islander
immigration began in the 1960s. These immigrants came mainly from Tonga, the
Fiji Islands, Tokelau, Niue, the Cook Islands, and, most of all, Samoa. East
Asian immigration dates from the 1860s, when gold rushes attracted thousands of
Chinese. Another wave of immigration began in the 1980s by peoples from East and
Southeast Asia, including ethnic Chinese from Hong Kong and Taiwan, South
Koreans, Thais, Malaysians, Vietnamese, and Filipinos.
English and Maori are the official
languages of New Zealand. Most of the people speak English with a New Zealand
accent, which resembles the Australian accent. The Maori language belongs to the
Austronesian language family. It was recognized as an official language in 1987.
A small percentage of the total Maori population is considered fluent in Maori,
but the language is being revived in early-childhood programs known as
kohanga reo (“language nests”). Other Polynesian and European languages
are spoken by a small percentage of the population.
B | Religion |
The majority of New Zealanders are at
least nominally Christian. Anglicans traditionally have formed the largest
single denomination. The next largest Christian groups are Presbyterians and
Roman Catholics. Membership in the major Christian churches has been declining
steadily in recent decades. Membership in some smaller sects, such as the
Pentecostal church, has meanwhile increased, as has the number of New Zealanders
professing no religion or refusing to state their affiliation. Many Pakeha claim
the religious affiliation of their families but are not active churchgoers. In
general, religious practice is stronger among Maori and Pacific Islanders than
among Pakeha. The Maori Christian churches, the Ringatu Church (founded in 1867)
and the Ratana Church of New Zealand (1918), have relatively small but
consistently active membership.
C | Education |
Education in New Zealand is free and
compulsory for all children aged 5 through 16. Students spend eight years in
primary school, often transferring to specialized intermediate schools for the
final two years. Secondary schooling generally takes five years, and it remains
tuition-free for students under the age of 20. Most students attend public
secular schools; only a minority attend private or church-affiliated
schools.
The system of higher education in New
Zealand includes eight universities. The largest are the University of Auckland
(founded in 1882), at Auckland, and Massey University (1926), with campuses at
Auckland, Palmerston North, and Wellington. Other institutions of higher
education are the University of Waikato (1964), at Hamilton; the Victoria
University of Wellington (1899); the University of Canterbury (1873), at
Christchurch; the University of Otago (1869), at Dunedin; Lincoln University
(1990; formerly Lincoln Agricultural College), near Christchurch; and the
Auckland University of Technology (2000, formerly the Auckland Institute of
Technology). Several colleges provide teacher training, and polytechnic
institutions offer degree programs, diplomas, and certificates in various
technical and professional trades.
D | Way of Life |
New Zealand society has changed
dramatically in recent decades. Until the 1960s the country was culturally
isolated from the rest of the world, except Britain. Most homes did not have
television, import controls limited access to some consumer goods, and overseas
travel and tourism were small in scale. Most women did not participate in the
paid workforce. Retail stores and other businesses were closed on Sundays, and
pubs (taverns) closed at the dinner hour. All of this changed by the 1990s,
however, and today New Zealand is just as modern and consumer-oriented as any
other Westernized nation. Social issues facing New Zealand include increasing
rates of unemployment and crime, especially since the 1980s.
New Zealanders enjoy a high standard of
living. Many live in single-family houses with a plot of land, even in the
larger cities. The rate of home ownership is high, although apartment dwelling
has increased in the cities. High-rise residential development is a recent
phenomenon confined mainly to Auckland and Wellington. Although most people live
in the cities, scenic rural areas are just a short distance away. Popular
leisure activities include beach swimming, fishing, skiing, and hiking. Most
New Zealanders take pride in their healthy, active way of life. In recent years
New Zealanders have become more conscious of the need to moderate their sun
exposure and high-fat diets. Restaurants now offer more varied and
health-conscious cuisine, although traditional dishes such as fish and chips and
lamb roast remain popular.
New Zealanders are keen sport
participants and fans. Rugby Union football is traditionally the favorite
national sport. Rugby League football, soccer, hockey, cricket, softball,
netball (a form of basketball), water sports, and track and field are also
popular. Women participate actively in all these sports except professional
rugby. New Zealanders take part in a variety of international sporting events,
such as rugby, soccer, cricket, tennis, and sailing competitions.
In recent years Maori culture and
perspectives have experienced a sort of renaissance in the predominantly white
society. Maori views on the colonial past have gained some mainstream
acceptance, especially in regard to land grievances in the courts, and Maori
arts are shown prominently in the Te Papa national museum in Wellington. Maori
themselves have made sustained and vigorous efforts to stem the loss of their
traditional ways of life, or Maoritanga. Social inequities remain a problem,
however, as Maori remain underrepresented in higher levels of education and in
the professions.
IV | CULTURE |
The earliest cultural tradition in New
Zealand was that of the Maori, who developed a rich and diverse Polynesian
culture in geographic isolation from the other cultures of Polynesia. European
settlers brought with them their own traditions, which eventually dominated the
country’s cultural life. Since the 1950s the cultural fabric of New Zealand has
become increasingly diverse with the immigration of peoples from the Pacific
Islands and Asia.
Traditional Maori culture is expressed in
song, dance, oratory, woodcarving, weaving, and architecture. Maori artists also
bring Maori perspectives to canvas painting, fiction and poetry writing, and
other art forms. The Maori have made a concerted effort to preserve their
culture. In the 1980s they initiated a revival of their language and other
traditions. By that time many Maori had assimilated into the predominant
European culture. The majority of Maori had become urban dwellers, and most
younger Maori did not know the Maori language. Today Maori culture thrives in
both traditional and reinvented traditions.
Cultural activity among people of European
descent, who are known as Pakeha in New Zealand, has long been strong, but until
recently tended to follow British models. Cultural output was high in both
quality and quantity. It was complicated by strong links with Britain, however,
because London was in many respects the cultural capital of New Zealand. The
most acclaimed New Zealand artists produced their famous works as expatriates in
England. Artists and writers who stayed in New Zealand tended to feel alienated
from, and unappreciated by, overseas European society. Even expatriate artists,
however, explored their New Zealand roots. In the second half of the 20th
century, Pakeha culture developed in its own right, producing many notable
writers and artists whose works draw on the New Zealand experience.
The government of New Zealand helps fund and
promote the arts, literature, and music through an arts council known as
Creative New Zealand (formerly the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New
Zealand), established in 1964.
A | Literature |
The modern literary canon of New Zealand
was founded by Katherine Mansfield, one of the 20th-century’s greatest
short-story writers. Mansfield launched her writing career in England, but the
influence of her New Zealand upbringing pervades her work. Female writers have
long predominated in New Zealand fiction writing, especially the novel. Janet
Frame, Keri Hulme, Margaret Mahy, Margaret Sutherland, Fiona Kidman, and Sylvia
Ashton-Warner are just a few of New Zealand’s many acclaimed female writers.
Important male writers include Maurice Shadbolt, Maurice Gee, Witi Ihimaera,
Vincent O’Sullivan, and Owen Marshall. Along with Hulme and Ihimaera,
contemporary Maori writers include Patricia Grace and Alan Duff. Maori-authored
works such as Grace’s Mutuwhenua (1978) address difficult questions of
biculturalism and the survival of the Maori community and culture.
James K. Baxter, author of Beyond the
Palisade (1944) and other poetry collections, is widely regarded as New
Zealand’s preeminent poet. Maori poet Hone Tuwhare published the first major
Maori poems in English, drawing on his Maori oral tradition and urban
working-class life. His direct, lyrical verse and command of the vernacular are
evident in his collections No Ordinary Sun (1964) and Sapwood and
Milk (1973).
The oral literary tradition is a vital
part of Maori society. Traditional Maori literature consists of history, tales,
poems, and legends, all of which have been preserved through the generations by
oral recitation. The Polynesian ancestors of the Maori established tribal kin
groups in defined territories, following Polynesian custom. Each group produced
a complex oral tradition concerning all aspects of its life. Some traditions
were exclusive to the Maori tribe that composed them; others came to be known
and used universally. The strikingly poetic language of the compositions aided
their memorization and recitation. The main types of composition are
whakapapa (genealogy), karakia (incantations), korero
(narratives), whakatauki (sayings), and waiata (sung poetry).
B | Performing Arts and Cinema |
New Zealand’s first professional theater
for the dramatic arts, an intimate community theater, opened in Wellington in
1964. The city continues to be the country’s strongest performing-arts center,
although Auckland also has a lively theater scene. Drama was long considered an
underdeveloped genre of New Zealand writing. Playmarket, a professional writer’s
agency founded in the early 1970s, encouraged the writing, production, and
performance of New Zealand plays. Playwright Roger Hall produced Playmarket’s
first major commercial successes, Glide Time (1976) and Middle-Age
Spread (1977), bringing widespread recognition to New Zealand’s community
theater movement. The play Foreskin’s Lament (1980), by Greg McGee, was
also an important benchmark.
In classical dance, ballerina Rowena
Othlie Jackson established an international reputation in the 1950s that has yet
to be surpassed in New Zealand. Along with Jackson, Alex Grant and Bryan
Ashbridge became outstanding dancers of the British Royal Ballet. Douglas Wright
became the country’s pioneering exponent of modern dance. The New Zealand
Symphony Orchestra, established in 1946 as the National Orchestra, is the most
successful of the country’s major national artistic organizations. New
Zealand-born opera singer Kiri Te Kanawa is known as one of the world’s leading
sopranos.
Maori cultural performances include
traditional dances such as kapa haka, performed by large singing and
dancing ensembles. More than 70 of the best ensembles perform in national
competition at the Maori Aotearoa Performing Arts Festival, held in various host
cities since 1972.
New Zealand filmmakers were active in the
early days of cinema, producing about 20 feature films in the 1920s and 1930s.
Rudall Hayward is remembered as the country’s most pioneering feature filmmaker
during those years. Few films were produced from the 1940s until the early
1970s, when New Zealand filmmaking began to experience a renaissance. Since then
many feature films have been produced, some with the help of the government Film
Commission, established in 1978. Directors Jane Campion, Lee Tamahori, Vincent
Wright, and Peter Jackson have produced some of New Zealand’s most well-known
contemporary films, including Campion’s The Piano (1993); Jackson’s
Heavenly Creatures (1994) and The Lord of the Rings, a film
trilogy based on the epic works of writer J. R. R. Tolkien; and Tamahori’s
Once Were Warriors (1994), based on the novel by Alan Duff.
C | Visual Arts and Crafts |
The New Zealand painting and sketching
tradition dates from early European settlement. Before the camera became
commonplace, artists recorded the realities of the land and its people on
canvas. This developed into a strong landscape-painting tradition. Painters
adapted in various ways to the New Zealand environment, particularly its
brilliant light. Frances Hodgkins was the most internationally successful New
Zealand artist of the first half of the 20th century. Since then painters such
as Toss Woollaston, Rita Angus, and Colin McCahon have brought New Zealand
painting into its own. Maori painter Ralph Hotere is one of the country’s most
highly acclaimed contemporary artists. Cartooning is another strong visual art
in New Zealand; David Low and Murray Ball are the best known of many fine
cartoonists.
New Zealand also has a strong handicraft
tradition, with many artisans producing jewelry, pottery, blown glass,
loom-woven textiles, and other works that blur craft and art. Traditional Maori
crafts such as woodcarving have immense cultural significance. The most stunning
examples of Maori woodcarving are in the marae, or communal
meetinghouses, where every carved wall panel has a symbolic significance.
Contemporary Maori woodcarvers, notably Cliff Whiting, blend traditional and
modern forms.
D | Libraries and Museums |
New Zealand has more than 260 libraries,
most of them part of a well-established and well-used public library system. The
National Library in Wellington incorporates the leading research library, the
Alexander Turnbull Library. Other important collections are held by the National
Archives in Wellington, the Auckland Public Library, and the Hocken Library in
Dunedin. The universities of Auckland, Otago, and Canterbury have large
collections.
The new national museum of New Zealand,
the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa (commonly known as Te Papa), opened
in Wellington in 1998. This national museum features cutting-edge exhibits on
New Zealand’s culture, history, and natural environment. The Auckland War
Memorial Museum is the country’s other large and well-visited museum. Both
museums attract more than 1 million visitors a year. New Zealand also has about
400 small museums and art galleries, many of them showing works of local
artists.
V | ECONOMY |
The economy of New Zealand has relied on
overseas trade and capital since the 19th century, when Europeans colonized the
islands. Most of the country’s infrastructure was initially developed by the
state using imported capital. Imported goods and capital were paid for with
exports of frozen meat and butter, which from the 1880s were the mainstay of
overseas earnings for nearly a century. Terms of trade (the relative prices of
exports and imports) were strongly in New Zealand’s favor until the early 1970s.
At that time, increases in world prices for oil (which New Zealand imports),
reduced world demand for New Zealand’s traditional primary goods, and decreased
access to the British market with the development of the European Community (now
European Union) contributed to a balance-of-payments deficit. The deficit
persisted, making it difficult for New Zealand to regain the prosperity of
earlier years. The economic problems were largely attributed to the economy’s
slow adjustment to external market changes. The economy’s dependence on the
export of a limited range of goods meant that any fluctuation in world prices
and demand for those goods had a considerable effect. In addition, the economy
was strongly regulated by the government.
In the mid-1980s the government initiated a
program of economic restructuring along free-market lines. The reforms were
designed to promote economic flexibility and competitiveness while decreasing
the government’s role in the economy. A program to deregulate the economy
involved the removal of many legal and governmental restrictions that were
regarded as hindrances to free competition, including agricultural subsidies,
tariffs and import duties, and fiscal controls. The government withdrew from the
manipulation of currency and financial markets and reduced its financial burden
for social-welfare provisions. Privatization was vigorously pursued, and many
state assets were transferred to the private sector. The economic restructuring
ultimately transformed a highly regulated welfare state into a free-market
economy.
The transition was not entirely successful in
terms of economic performance, however, as New Zealand’s economy fell short of
growth expectations. One reason for this was the increased export of profits,
especially in growth sectors such as banking and telecommunications. In
addition, some economic sectors could not compete with the lower wage levels and
higher industry protections in some other countries. The automobile industry was
completely eliminated, while many clothing and footwear manufacturers moved
their operations to countries with cheaper labor. The reforms also exacted a
social cost, leading to high rates of unemployment (virtually nonexistent from
the 1940s until the mid-1970s) and increased income inequalities.
The country’s national income, or gross
domestic product (GDP), was $104.5 billion in 2006 (in U.S. dollars). Some 66
percent of the GDP derives from services, 25 percent from industry, and 9
percent from agriculture, forestry, and fishing. However, the relatively small
GDP figure for agriculture, forestry, and fishing underestimates its importance
for New Zealand’s exports. Half of the country’s export earnings come from these
products. In recent years New Zealand has developed its agriculture and
manufacturing industries to suit the needs of niche markets. Dairy and meat
exports continue to make a large contribution to New Zealand’s economy. However,
industries such as forestry, horticulture, fishing, manufacturing, and tourism
have become increasingly significant.
A | Labor |
New Zealand has a workforce of about 2.2
million people, 54 percent of whom are male. The proportions of the workforce in
different sectors of the economy closely mirror each sector’s share of GDP. Wage
rates are modest, and GDP per capita is $24,977 (in U.S. dollars). The
unemployment rate was 3.9 percent of the workforce in 2004. The first labor
unions were established in the mining industry more than a century ago. Union
membership became compulsory, and trade unions negotiated wage increases for
their members. In 1991 the Employment Contracts Act (ECA) reversed the country’s
union traditions and promoted the rapid deregulation of the labor market. It
made unionism voluntary and enhanced the employer’s bargaining power. Union
membership decreased by about half, to about 300,000 workers. In 2000, however,
the ECA was replaced by the Employment Relations Act (ERA), under which union
membership remained voluntary but union powers were strengthened. Only unions
are allowed to negotiate collective contracts, and union representatives once
again have legal access to workplaces.
B | Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing |
Agriculture has an importance for New
Zealand’s exports that outweighs its share of the labor force and GDP. Most
agricultural land is pastoral and well suited for the raising of livestock. The
climate produces nearly continuous grass growth, and farm animals are generally
kept outside all year. Sheep are raised for both meat and wool. Sheep numbers
have declined from a peak of 70 million in 1982 to 40 million in 1999. The
country also has about 10 million beef and dairy cattle, as well as deer, goats,
and pigs.
New Zealand agriculture receives no direct
subsidies from the state, as subsidies were discontinued in the mid-1980s as
part of the government’s deregulation policies. Agricultural production
therefore tends to follow world price trends. From the late 1970s to 2000, the
relative output of mutton, lamb, and wool nearly halved (from 34 percent to 18
percent of agricultural output by value), while the relative output of dairy
products—including butter, cheese, milk powders, and casein—nearly doubled (from
16 percent to 31 percent). Crops account for less than 5 percent of agricultural
output. New Zealand now produces more than twice as much produce (fruits and
vegetables) as it did in the 1970s. Principal crops are cereals (barley, wheat,
maize, and oats), grapes, apples, pears, kiwi fruit, potatoes, and peas. The
production of some specialized horticultural products such as wine, kiwi fruit,
and squash has expanded considerably in recent years, and products like these
are thought to represent an important future direction for New Zealand
agriculture.
Timber production is almost exclusively
from the 1.7 million hectares (4.2 million acres) of plantation forests. Radiata
pine, a species originally imported from California, is the most widely planted
tree because of its rapid and straight growth in New Zealand. Tree plantations
are generally clear-cut and then replanted, with each growth cycle lasting from
25 to 30 years. Major plantings in the 1960s and 1970s are expected to provide
ample supply through at least 2010, while the allocation of more land for tree
plantations is likely to continue to boost supply. Timber is used to produce
sawn logs, wood pulp, paper, and building materials such as fiberboard.
Fish and other seafood are caught primarily
in the country’s exclusive economic zone. This zone extends 200 nautical miles
(370 km/230 mi) seaward from the main and offshore islands and is one of the
largest such zones in the world. It covers an area that is about 15 times the
total land area of New Zealand. The total commercial fisheries catch in 2000 was
about 650,000 metric tons, with just under half this being exported. Deep-sea
fishing involves the use of large trawlers to catch commercially valuable
species, the most important of these being hoki, orange roughy, ling, squid, and
hake. Also important for export income are aquacultural (farmed) salmon and
mussels as well as harvested rock lobster (crayfish) and paua (abalone).
C | Mining and Manufacturing |
New Zealand has a wide diversity of
minerals, but few are mined on a significant basis. The most notable is gold, of
which 7,300 kg (16,100 lb) was mined in 2004. Most gold comes from two mines,
Macraes in the Otago region (southern South Island) and the Martha Mine in the
Coromandel mountain range (northern North Island). Some alluvial mining takes
place on the west coast of the South Island and in Otago. These regions are
historic centers of the mining industry, which in the 1860s and 1870s furnished
the bulk of New Zealand’s exports. Iron sand is mined south of Auckland and
supplies the country’s one steel mill. Limestone is mined for the manufacture of
cement. New Zealand has extensive coal resources, but much of it is low-grade
lignite. Most mining operations now focus on the country’s deposits of higher
quality subbituminous coal. In 2003 New Zealand produced 5.7 million short tons
of coal. About one-third of the total coal production is exported, primarily to
Japan and Chile.
The biggest manufacturing sector,
accounting for 25 percent of industrial employment, is food, beverages, and
tobacco. Most food-processing industries are located in urban centers.
Meat-processing and dairy factories are located in the main agricultural
regions. Winemaking is increasingly significant, with the main production
centers in Marlborough on the northeastern coast of the South Island and Hawkes
Bay and Gisborne in eastern North Island.
Also important to the economy are
industries producing machinery and equipment, metal products, processed timber,
pulp and paper, textiles, clothing, footwear, and leather. Most New Zealand wool
is used for either carpet manufacture or clothing. Some of it is exported in
bulk for external processing into finished goods. Although some industries have
declined as a result of the tariff cuts of the 1980s and 1990s, some specialized
industries have established international markets for themselves. The
boatbuilding industry, for example, has expanded its market, especially for
luxury yachts, since New Zealand won the America’s Cup, an international
yachting-race trophy, in 1995.
D | Services |
The services sector is the most important
to the economy in terms of contribution to GDP and employment. Services include
tourism, transportation, retail sales, hospitality, education, health, business
consultancy, and banking. These are mostly urban trades, although many serve
agricultural production as well. Tourism is one of the most important components
of this sector in New Zealand. Ten percent of New Zealand jobs are in the
tourism industry. Tourism is also the country’s top earner of foreign exchange.
In 2001 New Zealand hosted 1.9 million tourists from countries such as
Australia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, South Korea, China, and
Germany.
E | Energy |
Electricity is generated in New Zealand by
hydroelectric power stations and thermal power stations. Hydroelectricity
accounts for 59 percent of the country’s total electricity generation. The
remainder comes from thermal power plants, which rely on three fuel sources:
geothermal steam, natural gas, and coal.
New Zealand has many hydroelectric
facilities that convert the waterpower of rivers and lakes into electricity. In
1965 the power transmission systems of the two main islands were linked by
submarine direct-current cables across Cook Strait. These cables send
hydroelectric power from the South Island to the North Island. The main thermal
power stations are located on the North Island, including a geothermal power
plant in the central volcanic plateau, a gas-fueled plant in the western
Taranaki region, and a coal- and gas-fueled plant south of Auckland. Electric
heating in homes is supplemented in parts of the North Island by natural gas
from fields in the Taranaki region.
New Zealand imports about half the
petroleum it consumes. The balance comes from domestic oil fields in the
Taranaki region, both onshore and offshore. Natural gas is also used to
manufacture synthetic gasoline, and some motor vehicles run on forms of natural
gas. Since 1973, when world oil prices rose sharply, New Zealand has made
considerable efforts to reduce its dependence on imported petroleum and, more
generally, its consumption of petroleum products. Measures included switching
the fuel source of the thermal power stations from oil to coal and gas.
F | Transportation and Communications |
New Zealand has 93,000 km (58,000 mi) of
road, 64 percent of which is paved. Most roads, even between big towns, are only
two lanes. In rural areas one-lane bridges are common, and occasionally motor
vehicles and trains must share them. The networks of urban motorways planned for
Auckland and Wellington in the 1960s have yet to be completed. Ownership of
motor vehicles is high by international standards, with approximately 1 vehicle
for every two people.
The country has about 3,900 km (2,400 mi)
of narrow-gauge rail track, forming a rail network that links most of the
country’s urban and agricultural centers. Developed by the state, the rail
network was sold to private enterprise in the early 1990s. The network includes
ferries carrying freight and passenger rail cars from Wellington to the South
Island. Substantial quantities of goods are transported by rail. Passenger
travel is limited to some long-distance trains, used mainly by tourists, and
commuter networks in Wellington and Auckland. The principal shipping ports are
at Auckland, Wellington, Tauranga, and Lyttelton (near Christchurch).
Air travel is the preferred mode of travel
between major cities. Air transport is widely used, with numerous airfields
located throughout the country to serve private pilots. Air New Zealand, the
national airline, and the Australian airline Qantas operate international as
well as domestic flights. The primary international airports, serving many
different airlines, are in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.
The communications industry in New Zealand
is competitive, with a number of companies offering Internet access,
cellular-phone services, and basic local and long-distance telephone services.
The government sold its national telecommunications company to the private
sector in 1989. Nearly all homes have telephones, and New Zealanders are avid
Internet users.
Two dozen daily newspapers are published in
New Zealand, but none is distributed nationwide. The highest-circulation
newspapers are the New Zealand Herald, published in Auckland; the
Press, in Christchurch; and the Dominion and the Evening
Post, both in Wellington. Freedom of the press is guaranteed in the New
Zealand Bill of Rights, and government regulation of the media industry is
minimal.
G | Foreign Trade |
New Zealand has always been a trading
nation and is dependent on exports to buy imports of oil and a wide range of
manufactured and consumer goods. The country typically spends more on imports
than it earns from exports. In 2004 the value of exports totaled $20.3 billion,
and the cost of imports totaled $21.3 billion. World prices for New Zealand’s
primary products have not kept up with prices of goods that New Zealand imports.
The country has sought to diversify its product offerings and trading partners
since the early 1970s in response to changing world demand and prices. The
United Kingdom was long the largest export market, but its demand for New
Zealand’s primary products, especially lamb meat and butter, declined after it
became a member of the European Community (now European Union) in 1973.
Australia then became New Zealand’s chief trading partner, and in 1982 the two
countries secured close trade and business ties in a bilateral trade agreement,
the Closer Economic Relations (CER) agreement. Among other provisions, the
agreement phased out tariffs for goods traded between the two countries.
The major export destinations are
Australia, Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Korea. The
key export groups by order of importance are dairy products, meat, timber, and
fish. The main sources of imports are Australia, the United States, Japan,
China, and Germany. The most important imports are mechanical machinery,
vehicles, electrical machinery, and mineral fuels. Imports of unprocessed
products, notably metals and unrefined petroleum, are also significant.
H | Currency and Banking |
The monetary unit is the New Zealand
dollar, which is divided into 100 cents (NZ$1.50 equals U.S.$1; 2006
average). The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (founded in 1934) has the sole power
of issue. The banking industry was deregulated in the 1980s. Legislation that
took effect in 1987 allowed the incorporation of foreign banks into the domestic
banking system, and this resulted in an expansion of the number of banks. The
great majority of registered banks in New Zealand are now foreign-owned. In 2002
the government-owned Kiwibank opened with the purpose of serving small
businesses and investors, as well as keeping all its profits in New Zealand. The
New Zealand Stock Exchange (NZSE), created in 1981 as the successor to the Stock
Exchange Association of New Zealand (founded in 1915), is the only stock
exchange in the country.
VI | GOVERNMENT |
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy
with a parliamentary form of government. After British sovereignty was
established in New Zealand in 1840, the Constitution Act of 1852 created the
first system of government, including a two-chamber legislature and provincial
councils. Additional legislation subsequently modified most of its provisions,
such as the elimination of the legislature’s upper house in 1950. Like the
United Kingdom, New Zealand does not have a single written constitution.
Instead, constitutional legislation is an accumulation of statutory and
customary laws. The miscellaneous laws are given cohesion through precedent,
tradition, and unwritten formal rules known as conventions. The Constitution Act
of 1986 consolidated and augmented New Zealand’s collection of laws. New Zealand
maintains close ties with the United Kingdom as a full member of the
Commonwealth of Nations.
A | Executive |
New Zealand recognizes the British monarch
as its sovereign, or formal head of state. The monarch is represented in New
Zealand by a governor-general. This official is appointed by the monarch on the
prime minister’s recommendation to a five-year term. After national elections,
the governor-general appoints the leader of the majority party in the
legislature as prime minister and arranges for the prime minister to form a
government, or cabinet of ministers. The governor-general formally appoints the
ministers on the prime minister’s recommendation. The governor-general must also
give assent for parliamentary bills to become law. These duties are mostly
ceremonial, and the governor-general exercises little real power in New
Zealand.
The prime minister heads the cabinet,
which is the highest policy-making body of government. The cabinet is
responsible for the day-to-day administration of government, and ministers have
responsibility for specific areas of policy. Ministers also convene in the
Executive Council, a body that advises the governor-general. Constitutional
convention requires the governor-general to follow the council’s
recommendations.
B | Legislature |
The legislature, or Parliament, is
composed of one chamber, the House of Representatives. Parliament is vested with
the power to make laws. The House of Representatives is composed of 120 members,
who have been elected since 1996 according to what is known as the mixed-member
proportional (MMP) system. In this system, half of the members are elected from
voting districts (including six seats reserved for Maori representatives) and
half are elected from party lists based on a party’s share of the vote in
national elections. Legislative elections must be held at least every three
years.
Voter registration is compulsory in New
Zealand, but voting is voluntary. Registered electors, or persons who appear on
the electoral roll, must be at least 18 years of age, citizens or permanent
residents who have lived in the country for at least one year, and residents of
the voting district in which they enroll for at least one month. People of Maori
descent can enroll in either a general voting district or one of the Maori
voting districts. Every elector, under the MMP system, has two votes: one for an
electoral-district representative, and one for a political party.
C | Judiciary |
The governor-general of New Zealand
appoints all judges in New Zealand, a tradition designed to supersede politics.
The judicial system includes district courts, a High Court, a Court of Appeal,
and a Supreme Court, which replaced the London-based Privy Council as New
Zealand’s top judicial body in 2004. These courts form a hierarchy in the
appeals process. The High Court hears appeals from lower courts and tribunals,
while the Court of Appeal hears appeals from the High Court and from District
Court jury trials. The decisions of the Court of Appeal are final, except in
cases that may be appealed to the Supreme Court.
D | Political Parties |
The two largest political parties in New
Zealand are the National Party and the Labour Party. These parties traditionally
dominated the politics of the country, contesting each other for control of the
legislature. In order to moderate the impact of this two-party system, New
Zealanders voted in a referendum to implement the MMP system, which took effect
with the 1996 elections. This system helps smaller parties to win more
legislative seats, thereby decreasing the likelihood of a one-party majority.
Smaller parties are therefore often solicited to enter into party coalitions
with the Labour and National parties, which continue to be the most influential
parties. Other important parties include New Zealand First, ACT New Zealand,
United Future, and the Green Party.
E | Local Government |
New Zealand is divided into 12 regions and
74 territories. Regional councils administer the regions, and territorial
authorities administer the territories. The territorial authorities include
district and city councils, which have responsibility for most local
administration. All members of these local governing bodies are directly
elected.
F | Social Services |
New Zealand introduced a social security
system of government-funded old-age pensions in 1898 and expanded the system in
the 1920s. The central government took on the provision of social services in
the late 1930s, after the global economic recession of the Great Depression. New
Zealand developed into one of the world’s most comprehensive welfare states,
with government subsidies for programs and services such as health care, welfare
benefits, and education. In the mid-1980s, however, government began to reduce
expenditures on social services. The reforms coincided with an economic
restructuring program designed to decrease the role of government. The age of
qualification for superannuation (the state-funded retirement benefit) was
raised from 60 to 65, and the level of entitlement was cut. Measures were also
instituted to reduce government expenditures on health care and education, but
public outcry led to the reversal of some of these cutbacks. Although public
hospitals provide state-subsidized health care, many are understaffed due to a
nationwide shortage of health care providers. Increasing numbers of people have
joined private health insurance schemes to circumvent waiting lists in public
hospitals. Universities have found it difficult to function with decreased state
funding, and students face escalating costs for tertiary education.
G | Defense |
The army, navy, and air force of New
Zealand are coordinated under the ministry of defense. The army numbered 4,450
regular personnel in 1999. Regular navy personnel totaled 1,980. The air force
had 2,800 regular members. The army is primarily used in international
peacekeeping operations. Military service is voluntary; compulsory service was
eliminated in the 1950s.
H | International Organizations |
New Zealand is a founding member of the
United Nations (UN) and a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations, a
voluntary association of countries and dependencies with ties to the United
Kingdom.
VII | HISTORY |
The first people to settle New Zealand were
the ancestors of the Maori, who are thought to have called the islands Aotearoa
(“Land of the Long White Cloud”). The Maori were part of the extraordinary
spread of Polynesian peoples across the far-flung islands of the Pacific Ocean
between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago. Although scholars have long debated the time
of their arrival in New Zealand, the strongest evidence to date indicates that
the first major Maori settlement was established about ad 1200.
A | Early Maori Life |
Maori history credits the explorer Kupe
with the discovery of Aotearoa. Polynesian settlers subsequently came by canoe,
or waka. The first Maori settlers found a country rich in easily hunted
big game, notably fur seals and giant wingless birds known as moa. Seeking the
highest concentrations of seal and moa, as well as sources of the best stone for
tools, early Maori appear to have rapidly settled in many areas. Maori
cultivated crops brought from central Polynesia, notably the kumara
(sweet potato) and hue (gourd). They also fished and gathered wild
plants, especially aruhe (fernroot).
By about 1500 the moa and fur seal
populations had begun to decline, and the Maori shifted from hunting toward more
intensive fishing, gardening, and gathering. It may have been about this time
that modern tribal organization began to emerge. Groups began building great
wooden forts, called pa, that dotted the country at the time of European
contact. Intensive warfare, however, may have been less common than Maori
legends and the large number of pa suggest. The Maori population is estimated to
have been about 85,000 in 1769, when ongoing European contact began.
Maori culture before European contact was
rich and dynamic. The Maori traveled widely and exchanged goods through
reciprocal gifting. Mythology, religion, and rituals were well developed, and a
vast body of lore transmitted history, identity, and practical knowledge.
Singing, dancing, oratory, weaving, and woodcarving were important cultural
traditions. Ritual cannibalism was sometimes practiced on the bodies of slain
enemies, and prisoners of war were made slaves or low-status wives. Social
status depended on mana (repute), which could be acquired through
inheritance, such as high-ranking lineage, or individual achievement. Evidence
for the status of Maori women, although inconclusive, indicates that mana was a
key factor. Some women of esteemed mana ranked among the highest sacred chiefs,
warriors, and other community leaders. Women also had important formal roles in
social rituals. Both male and female children were cherished.
B | European Contact |
According to legend, Europeans may have
visited New Zealand as early as 1504. The first documented visit was by the
Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642. Maori killed four of Tasman’s crew, helping
to discourage further visits until British explorer Captain James Cook arrived
in 1769, during the first of his three voyages of exploration in the South
Pacific Ocean. He returned to New Zealand during each of these voyages. Early
French expeditions to the islands included those of Jean-Francois Marie de
Surville, who arrived shortly after Cook in 1769, and Marion Dufresne, who was
killed by Maori in the Bay of Islands in 1772.
Sealing expeditions to the southern
coasts and islands (where seals had survived Maori hunting) began in the 1790s.
Oceangoing whalers began to make visits in about 1800, and shore whaling,
trading, and lumbering began in the 1820s. Missionaries arrived in 1814. There
were less than 1,000 permanent European settlers before the late 1830s, but
short-term visitors were much more numerous. Whale hunters from New England were
probably the largest single group of temporary settlers. Hundreds of their ships
called at the Bay of Islands for water, fresh food, and recreation. Australians
of European descent also made early contact in New Zealand.
European contact from 1790 to 1840
changed Maori society in many ways. New plants and animals, notably potatoes and
pigs, and metal tools made life easier. Maori engaged eagerly with Christianity
from about 1830, although they modified the new belief system for their own
purposes and used religious conversion as a way of gaining literacy and mana.
The introduction of European guns, however, triggered the Musket Wars
(1818-1835), fierce intertribal conflicts that left thousands dead. These wars
ended when muskets became evenly distributed among rival tribes.
European-introduced diseases such as influenza and measles also took their toll
on the Maori. Loss of life was substantial; the Maori population dropped from
about 85,000 in 1769 to about 60,000 in the 1850s. Overall, however, Maori
society bent but did not break under the weight of European contact.
C | British Rule |
Britain acquired nominal sovereignty
over New Zealand in 1840, by proclamation and by agreement with many Maori.
British sovereignty was established by the Treaty of Waitangi, signed at
Waitangi in February 1840, and elsewhere later that year, by Maori chiefs.
British officials eventually collected 512 Maori signatures, and on May 21,
1840, New Zealand’s North Island was declared a British colony. On neighboring
South Island, however, they did not collect enough signatures to establish a
British colony by treaty. In June British officials simply annexed South Island
and declared it part of the colony.
The English-language version of the
treaty granted Maori full British citizenship and guaranteed their property
rights while it bestowed full sovereignty to Britain. In Maori-language
versions, Maori retained rights of chieftainship, which could be interpreted as
at least partial sovereignty. These differing perceptions led to localized
conflicts between British and Maori in the 1840s, but there was also a
surprising degree of cooperation between the two peoples. Maori soon realized,
however, that to continue traditional feuds among themselves detracted from
their ability to address the steady encroachment of Europeans, whom they called
Pakeha, onto their tribal lands. Maori tribal groups began holding large
meetings on the subject in the early 1850s. They established a Maori pan-tribal
organization, the Maori King Movement, in 1858 to unite Maori and stop the sale
of land to Europeans. Te Wherowhero was proclaimed the first Maori king,
reigning as Potatau I.
Mounting tensions culminated in the New
Zealand Wars, which broke out in Taranaki in 1860, spread across the North
Island, and continued until 1872. Colonial governor George Grey masterminded the
British war effort between 1861 and 1867. He succeeded in obtaining 12,000
imperial troops from the British government. Important Maori resistance leaders
included Rewi Maniapoto, Titokowaru, and Te Kooti Rikirangi. Maori won many
battles by using innovative trench-warfare techniques, but in the end they were
overwhelmed by the sheer numbers and resources of the British. After the wars
pockets of Maori independence persisted until 1916. That year the last armed
conflict took place in the isolated Urewera Mountains, in the eastern North
Island.
D | European Settlement and Government Until 1890 |
Settlement of New Zealand from the
British Isles and Australia began in earnest after the signing of the Treaty of
Waitangi. New Zealand was initially made a dependency of New South Wales,
Australia, but in 1841 it was constituted a separate crown colony. Auckland was
founded as a planned capital in late 1840. The New Zealand Company was the major
organizer of European colonization in the 1840s. It founded the towns of
Wellington, Nelson, Wanganui, and New Plymouth by 1842; associated companies
added Dunedin in 1848 and Christchurch in 1850.
After the treaty signing, Britain
appointed a governor and began large-scale settlement. Provincial governments
were established in the early 1850s and took over the organization of
settlement. A national parliament convened for the first time in 1854, coming
under the leadership of a premier in 1856, and took over many of the functions
of the appointed governor by 1868. Under the influence of colonial treasurer
Julius Vogel, a staunch supporter of British expansionism in the Pacific, the
parliament began organizing and subsidizing immigration, bringing over another
100,000 people in the 1870s alone. The capital moved from Auckland, which had
become a center of commercial activity, to Wellington in 1865. The central
government gradually increased its hold on power at the local level by pushing
aside its rivals, mainly Maori tribal leaders and provincial governments. The
provinces themselves were abolished in 1876, replaced by counties and
boroughs.
The European population of New Zealand
grew from about 1,000 in the 1830s to nearly 60,000 in 1858, when parity with
Maori was reached, and then rocketed to 500,000 by the early 1880s. The rapid
population growth was due mostly to government sponsorship of immigration,
employment in public-works projects, and the growth of export industries. Wool
became a leading export beginning in 1850, but the export of extractive products
such as timber, flax, kauri gum, and gold were also important. The discovery in
1861 of large quantities of gold in the Otago region of the South Island set off
the gold rushes, in which large numbers of miners came from Australia and as far
away as California to try their luck at striking it rich. Settlers led a
rough-and-tumble life in the early colonial days of New Zealand. Families were
large, women were less numerous than men, and crime was high. Settlement was
scattered in numerous camps and towns. Opportunistic individualism and a
pervasive “rush” mentality prevailed.
New Zealand politics from the 1850s to
the 1880s were dominated by a small elite of men who, having prospered in
business and sheep farming, formed a landed gentry. They controlled government
and became New Zealand’s ruling class. Nevertheless, they always had to
compromise with the middle- and working-class desire for at least nominal
equality and for the expansion of opportunity. The demand for equality was met
in part by extensions of the right to vote, first to virtually all men by 1881,
and then to women in 1893. Women in New Zealand were among the first in the
world to gain suffrage. However, the ruling elite failed to deliver expanding
opportunities. In the 1880s a worldwide recession hit New Zealand. Growth rates
plummeted, and the electorate saw stagnation as a breach of contract. The gentry
lost power to the Liberals, an alliance of middle- and working-class
politicians, in 1890.
E | Liberal Government and World War I |
The Liberal government of 1891-1912 was
led first by John Ballance (until 1893), then by Richard Seddon (until 1906),
and finally by Joseph Ward. Seddon, a remarkable populist politician, was known
to himself as well as others as King Dick. He led New Zealand into the Boer War
(1899-1902), to which it contributed 6,600 troops, and kept it from becoming
part of the Commonwealth of Australia, formed in 1901.
The Liberals formed the first of three
reformist New Zealand governments in the 20th century. Their policies
established the foundation of social welfare that was to be expanded into a
comprehensive welfare state after the economic depression of the 1930s. The
Pensions Act of 1898, although limited in both amount and eligibility, set the
precedent. Labor, land, and industry reforms were more comprehensive. The
centerpiece of labor legislation was the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration
Act of 1894, establishing a system that institutionalized labor unions and
reduced the frequency of strikes. Land legislation included measures to buy and
subdivide gentry estates and remaining Maori land for the benefit of small
farmers. The state also supplied credit to farmers for farms, and later to
workers for homes, at cheap rates. Government involvement in industry included
the expansion of railways and the assistance and regulation of new industries.
These measures helped, but did not
cause, the great economic transformation of the period. In the mid-1880s New
Zealand switched from net importer to net exporter of both goods and capital.
Wool exports remained important, but public works, organized immigration, and
extractive industries began a relative decline. They were increasingly replaced
by the so-called protein industries, which exported refrigerated meat, cheese,
and butter to the British market. The new export-based economic system was up
and running by 1900. Tight government regulation maintained the products’
reputation for quality in the British market. The focus on regulated exports
tightened links with Britain, despite widely held expectations for steady moves
toward national independence.
The status of New Zealand changed from
colony to dominion in 1907, with premiers taking the title of prime minister
thereafter. The Reform Party, conservative despite its name, took power from the
Liberals in 1912. The Reform Party was led by William Massey, who served as
prime minister from 1912 until 1925. His hard-line policy during a serious
industrial crisis in 1912-1913 involved some violence. The failure of a general
workers’ strike in 1913 encouraged organized labor to shift emphasis from
industrial action to politics. The Labour Party was formed in 1916. New Zealand
participated enthusiastically in World War I (1914-1918), supplying 100,000
troops to the Allied forces. Politicians and historians claimed that the country
earned full nationhood through this contribution, but the price was staggeringly
high: 60,000 casualties out of a total population of barely more than 1
million.
F | The Great Depression and Reform |
New Zealand’s political and economic
fortunes were mixed between 1918 and 1935. The protein industries consolidated
and expanded in the 1920s, but there were recessions as well, and the country
was swept up in the global economic collapse of the Great Depression from 1929.
The Reform government ended its long reign in 1928, replaced by various
combinations of rightist and centrist parties until 1935. That year, as economic
depression began to lift, the first Labour government was elected, and the
second of New Zealand’s three great spasms of reform began.
Labour held power from 1935 to 1949, led
first by Michael Savage and, from 1940, by Peter Fraser. It set up a
comprehensive social security system of welfare benefits and health care;
further expanded the free education system; took some initiatives in state
support for arts and culture; and extended state regulation into most areas of
economics and society. In foreign policy, Labour clashed with Britain over
policies toward Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and the Spanish Civil War
(1936-1939). When World War II began in 1939, however, New Zealand did not
hesitate to back Britain. Once again New Zealand mounted an extraordinary war
effort for a small country, mobilizing about 200,000 soldiers, sailors, and
pilots. These forces were used mostly at Britain’s discretion. After Japan
entered the war in 1941, New Zealand assisted the United States in its Pacific
campaign, mostly through increased food and factory production.
The war strengthened New Zealand’s
relationship with the United States, leading to increased trade and diplomatic
contacts. In 1951 the mutual-defense alliance of Australia, New Zealand, and the
United States (ANZUS) was formed, leading to greater policy coordination between
the three countries. The United States gradually replaced Britain as New
Zealand’s senior partner in international relations. Economic and cultural links
between Britain and New Zealand persisted strongly, however, until Britain
joined the European Community (now the European Union) in 1973, thereby
strengthening its ties with other countries in Europe.
F1 | National Party Dominance |
Labour lost its hold on power in the
1949 elections. The National Party (established as a successor to the Reform
Party in 1936) won a decisive victory under the leadership of Sidney Holland,
who became prime minister. In 1951 his government responded to a prolonged
dockworkers’ strike by restricting civil liberties. Holland served as prime
minister until he retired, citing ill health, in 1957. In the elections of that
year the National Party, under the leadership of Holland’s successor, Keith
Holyoake, lost to the Labour Party under Walter Nash. But Holyoake led the
National Party to victory in the 1960 elections and in three subsequent
elections, holding office as prime minister until 1972. That year the Labour
Party secured an election victory under Norman Kirk. Kirk died in office in 1974
and was replaced by Wallace Rowling. The National Party was reelected in 1975,
now under Robert Muldoon, who served as prime minister until 1984.
During these decades of National Party
dominance, a high level of integration between state, business, farming, and
even workers’ unions persisted. The economy was fairly prosperous from the 1950s
through the 1970s. Waning demand for New Zealand products in Britain led to more
diversified trading partners. Muldoon’s government regulated many parts of New
Zealand’s economy, to the benefit of farmers and businesses. He advocated
traditional social values and maintained close ties with Britain and the United
States. These policies, along with his authoritarian brand of leadership,
brought him into conflict with Maori rights organizations, feminist groups, and
a growing anti-nuclear environmentalist movement.
Several dramatic social changes took
place between the 1950s and the early 1980s. Perhaps the most important was the
resurgence of Maori, whose population began to make a healthy recovery in the
1940s. The Maori population increased from 45,000 to 523,000 between 1896 and
1996. This growth was coupled with massive Maori urban migration and, from 1970,
political protest and radical activism that resulted in more official
recognition of Maori concerns. Other important social changes included a major
movement of women into the paid workforce and new waves of immigration by people
from Europe as well as the Pacific Islands and, especially after 1984, East
Asia. In the 1960s nonconformist youth and marginalized groups began to
challenge the status quo. This was coupled with considerable activity in the
arts. New Zealand experienced a general social liberalization, perhaps even
cultural decolonization, as a result of these social changes.
G | Third Period of Reform |
In 1978 and 1981 the Muldoon government
was narrowly returned to power, but when Muldoon called an early election in
1984, the Labour Party under David Lange defeated him. Growing support for
social, political, and economic reforms as well as frustration over a depressed
economy contributed to the National Party’s downfall. As prime minister, Lange
initiated the third period of intense reform in New Zealand’s modern history.
Reversing its traditional position, the Labour Party set out to deregulate
economy and society and to disengage the state from both. The policies, often
referred to as “Rogernomics,” were masterminded more by Finance Minister Roger
Douglas than by Lange, who eventually came to oppose them and removed Douglas in
1988. However, economic restructuring was continued by succeeding governments,
both National and Labour, until 1999.
The new Labour government also set the
precedent of making the first real attempt to address Maori grievances. Since
1975 Maori had been able to submit grievances to the Waitangi Tribunal, but only
for claims of recent breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi. The tribunal was
largely ineffectual until 1985, when the government enabled it to consider Maori
grievances from as far back as 1840. Since then there have been several major
settlements, under which the state paid compensation to Maori tribal groups for
breaches of the treaty. Although the settlements met with a mixed reception from
some Maori claimants, the tribunal process does suggest that at least some
reconciliation is possible.
Under Lange the Labour government also
adopted an antinuclear policy, which led to the suspension of the ANZUS treaty.
After the Labour election victory in 1984, a strong section of the party and of
the public advocated an uncompromising antinuclear policy, directed against
French nuclear testing in the Pacific and visits to New Zealand’s coastal waters
by nuclear-armed and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. Protests against
French tests were led by the environmental organization Greenpeace. In 1985,
before planned Greenpeace protests at the nuclear test site of Mururoa, an atoll
in French Polynesia, the Greenpeace flagship Rainbow Warrior was blown up
and sunk in Auckland’s harbor. One person died as a result of the bombing.
Investigations revealed that the ship had been deliberately sabotaged with
explosives planted by undercover agents of the French military. This incident
broadened and strengthened public support in New Zealand for an antinuclear
stance. New Zealand’s military alliance with the United States, effectively the
cornerstone of foreign policy since 1942, lapsed. In 1986 the United States
suspended its ANZUS security guarantees to New Zealand. (Separate defense
agreements with Australia remained in force.) In June 1987 New Zealand’s ban on
nuclear-carrying vessels in its territorial waters became law with the enactment
of the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Bill.
The Labour government won reelection in
1987. Citing ill health, Lange resigned in 1989 and was replaced by Geoffrey
Palmer. Internal disputes within the party and the declining popularity of the
government caused Palmer to resign in favor of Michael Moore in September 1990.
The national election held the following month was fought mainly over economic
issues. Labour was ousted by the National Party, then headed by James (Jim)
Brendan Bolger.
H | Recent Developments |
The results of the parliamentary
election in 1993 were the closest of the 20th century. The initial outcome was a
hung Parliament, with no party holding an outright majority. Recounts of votes
in marginal electorates allowed the National Party, led by Bolger, to emerge
with 50 seats, a 1-seat majority in Parliament. Soon after the narrow defeat of
the Labour Party in the 1993 elections, Helen Clark replaced Moore as party
leader, becoming the first woman to head a major political party in New
Zealand.
Also in the 1993 elections, a national
referendum was held on whether New Zealand should retain its majority-vote
electoral system or replace it with a system of proportional representation,
known as the mixed-member proportional (MMP) system. The MMP system was seen as
a way to limit the dominance of the two largest parties, Labour and National, by
making it more difficult for either party to win a simple majority, forcing them
to form coalitions with smaller parties. By a slim margin, voters approved the
new system to go into effect with the 1996 elections.
The first elections under MMP returned
Bolger and the National Party to power in a coalition with the New Zealand First
party. A challenge from Jenny Shipley, former minister of social welfare, forced
Bolger to resign as prime minister and head of the National Party in 1997.
Shipley replaced him in November of that year, becoming New Zealand’s first
female prime minister.
In the 1999 legislative elections
voters, weary of economic restructuring, ended nine years of National Party rule
by voting in a center-left coalition led by the Labour Party. Labour was led by
Helen Clark, who became New Zealand’s first female prime minister to be selected
following parliamentary elections. Clark began a second term following the 2002
elections, in which the Labour Party won a plurality in Parliament. Clark formed
a government with the support of the center-right United Future party, but that
party declined to become an official coalition partner. In 2005 Clark became the
first Labour leader to win a third term as prime minister. Her party formed a
coalition government with the support of a number of minor parties, including
United Future and the nationalist New Zealand First party.
The Land and Resources and
Economy sections of this article were reviewed by Ward Friesen. The
People and Society, Culture, and History sections were contributed
by James Belich.
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