| I | INTRODUCTION |
Venezuela, country on the northern coast of South
America, bordering the Caribbean Sea. Venezuela’s landscapes range from the
towering peaks of the Andes Mountains in the north to tropical jungles in the
south. In the middle of the country are grassy plains and rugged highlands.
Beautiful beaches fringe the coast, and islands belonging to Venezuela lie
offshore. The country’s capital and largest city is Caracas.
A Spanish colony for more than 300 years,
Venezuela became one of the first of Spain’s South American colonies to declare
its independence in the early 19th century. Formerly known as the Republic of
Venezuela, the country changed its official name to the Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela in 1999. The name is in reference to Símon Bólivar, the military
leader who helped win independence for Venezuela and other South American
countries. Since becoming a sovereign nation, Venezuela has undergone periodic
episodes of civil conflict and dictatorship, with the military exerting a strong
influence over politics. Since the late 1950s, democratically elected
governments have ruled the nation.
The majority of Venezuelans are
mestizos, people of mixed European and Native American ancestry. The
country’s economy was dominated by agriculture until the discovery of vast
quantities of petroleum in the early 1900s. Government-run agencies have
coordinated oil production since the 1970s. Although the oil industry has
generated great wealth, Venezuelan society remains sharply divided between rich
and poor. An elite class of businessmen, oil-company technicians, and large
landowners controls most of the country’s resources, while a large number of
unskilled urban laborers and rural farmworkers live in relative poverty.
| II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
Venezuela has a total area of 916,445 sq km
(353,841 sq mi), which makes it just over twice the size of the state of
California. Along the north the country’s coastline extends for about 2,800 km
(about 1,700 mi). The numerous recesses along the coast include the gulfs of
Venezuela and Paria. The coast is generally narrow and steep except in the west,
which has expanses of low and occasionally marshy land. Of the 72 coastal
islands that belong to Venezuela, Margarita is the largest and most
important.
Venezuela is bounded by Colombia to the
west, Brazil to the south, and Guyana to the east. The country has four distinct
geographic regions: the northern mountains, the Maracaibo lowlands, the Llanos
(plains) of the north central region, and the Guiana Highlands to the south.
| A | Northern Mountains |
The northernmost ranges of the Andes
extend into western Venezuela. The largely uninhabited Sierra de Perijá range
forms the Colombia-Venezuela border. Peaks in these mountains reach elevations
above 3,400 m (11,000 ft), with average crest heights about 2,400 m (8,000 ft).
Heavily forested slopes descend from the highest peaks in a series of lesser
ridges to the humid lowlands of Lake Maracaibo.
The highest Andean range in Venezuela is
the Cordillera de Mérida, which extends northeastward from the border with
Colombia. Many of the peaks in this range have snow year round. The Cordillera
de Mérida contain the country’s highest point, Pico Bolívar (5,007 m/16,427 ft).
A series of lower mountains runs parallel to Venezuela’s Caribbean coast for
about two-thirds of its east-west length. Most of Venezuela’s people live along
the coast or in the coastal mountains.
| B | Maracaibo Lowlands |
The Maracaibo lowlands are situated in the
northwest corner of Venezuela and nearly enclosed by the mountains and
highlands. Although they make up the smallest natural region of the country,
they contain Venezuela’s second largest city, Maracaibo and the rich petroleum
fields nearby.
Lake Maracaibo, an inland extension of the
Gulf of Venezuela, dominates the Maracaibo lowlands. Lake Maracaibo is one of
the largest lakes in South America, extending about 195 km (120 mi) in length. A
narrow channel connects the northern end of the lake to the Gulf of Venezuela
and the Caribbean Sea. In 1956 this channel was dredged so that oil tankers
could pass through it.
Oil fields are located along the shores of
Lake Maracaibo. The southern lakeshore has a luxuriant tropical forest rising
above swampy, insect-infested lagoons. Widely scattered sugarcane and cacao
plantations occupy the better-drained soils in this area.
| C | The Llanos |
The Llanos, a region of vast tropical
grassland, lie south of the coastal mountains and occupy the north central
region of Venezuela. These plains cover about one-third of the country and
extend to the Orinoco River delta on the northeastern coast. Elevations rarely
exceed 215 m (700 ft). Savanna grasses, widely scattered clumps of brush, and
palm groves cover the land. Ranchers raise cattle on these hot plains.
The climate of the Llanos is tropical.
During the wet season from May to November, heavy tropical rains fall, rivers
overflow their banks, and vast areas of the Llanos are flooded. During the dry
season that follows, grasses become parched, trees drop their leaves, and
ranchers drive their cattle to water in wet lowland pastures near the Orinoco.
| D | Guiana Highlands |
More than half of Venezuela lies south of
the Orinoco River in a remote region known as the Guiana Highlands. This rugged
region takes its name from the ancient Guiana bedrock that underlies it. The
highlands consist of rolling hills, low mountains, and plateau. Tropical forests
cover much of the land, interspersed with open grasslands. The chief mountain
ranges are the Sierra Parima, from which the Orinoco headwaters flow, and the
Sierra Paracaima, along the borders with Brazil and Guyana. The Guiana Highlands
are sparsely settled but have attracted attention owing to discoveries of
valuable ores such as iron, manganese, and bauxite.
Huge flat-topped mountains called tepuys
rise in a part of the highlands near the Brazilian border known as the Gran
Sabana. Waterfalls tumble over the edges of many tepuys. The highest waterfall
in the world, Angel Falls, is located in the Gran Sabana. This impressive
waterfall plunges a distance of 979 m (3,212 ft).
The Orinoco Delta is situated at the
northern end of the Guiana Highlands, where the Orinoco River empties into the
Atlantic Ocean. The delta consists of numerous islands and mangrove swamps.
| E | Rivers |
Venezuela has six navigable rivers. Of the
thousand or more streams in the country, the majority flow into the Orinoco. The
Orinoco flows east across central Venezuela and drains approximately four-fifths
of the total area of the country. With the tributaries—the Apure, Meta, and
Negro rivers—it forms the outlet into the Atlantic Ocean for the waters of much
of the interior of Colombia, as well as of inland Venezuela.
| F | Climate |
The climate of Venezuela is tropical on the
Llanos and along the coast and temperate in the mountainous regions. The coastal
areas are extremely hot and humid. More comfortable conditions occur in highland
regions, and nearly all the principal cities in Venezuela are between 600 and
1,800 m (about 2,000 to 6,000 ft) above sea level. The average daily temperature
range in January is 15° to 26°C (59° to 78°F) in Caracas and 23° to 32°C (73° to
90°F) in Maracaibo; in July the range is 17° to 26°C (63° to 80°F) in Caracas
and 24° to 34°C (76° to 94°F) in Maracaibo. Most precipitation falls from May
through November, with the northern mountain slopes receiving less rain than
those on the south. The dry season is from December to April.
| G | Natural Resources |
Venezuela is rich in mineral resources. The
country’s most important resource is petroleum. Other resources include natural
gas, bauxite, gold, iron ore, copper, zinc, lead, and diamonds. Forests, too,
are an important resource.
| H | Plants and Animals |
Forests of varied species including palms,
coral trees, mangoes, and brazilwoods cover 52.3 percent of Venezuela. Plant
life common to the Temperate Zone (the region north of the tropic of Cancer)
thrives above about 900 m (about 3,000 ft). Long grass grows on the Llanos, and
mangrove swamps cover much of the Orinoco River delta.
Among the animals of Venezuela are jaguars,
monkeys, sloths, anteaters, ocelots, bears, deer, and armadillos. Birdlife is
abundant and includes flamingos, herons, ibis, guacharos (also called oilbirds),
and numerous other species. Reptiles, including crocodiles and large snakes,
such as anacondas and boa constrictors, are also found in Venezuela.
| I | Environmental Concerns |
Venezuela protects more than a third of
its land area—the highest percentage of any country in North and South America.
Yet despite these protective measures, Venezuela continues to lose some of its
valuable tropical forests each year. In addition, soil degradation in the
grasslands of the Llanos, resulting from years of overgrazing, has become a
major problem.
Occasional oil spills have killed fish
and shut down shoreline resorts on Lake Maracaibo. Industrial pollution also
plagues the Caribbean Sea coast where most of the country’s population lives.
Insufficient sewage treatment facilities contribute to the pollution of the
Caribbean Sea coast as well. In rural areas many people lack access to proper
sanitation. Air pollution is an additional concern in urban centers such as
Caracas, Maracaibo, and Valencia. Venezuela is party to international treaties
concerning biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, marine life
conservation, ship pollution, tropical timber, and wetlands.
| III | PEOPLE |
About 67 percent of the population of
Venezuela is made up of mestizos (people of mixed European and Native
American ancestry), and 21 percent is of European descent. The remainder is
predominantly black, and about 2 percent of the total population is unmixed
Native American. The society is 88 percent urban. Spanish is the official
language of the country. The principal religion is Roman Catholicism.
Venezuelan society is marked by a striking
contrast between rich and poor. In Caracas government-distributed oil wealth has
created impressive buildings and a class of millionaires and highly paid
technicians whose standard of living is on a par with that of the wealthy in any
Western country. But in the hills surrounding Caracas, unskilled laborers live
in squalor in shantytowns. Similarly, in the countryside a small number of
landowners live in mansions, while undernourished farmworkers live in
rudimentary dwellings.
The Venezuelan population is 26,414,815
(2008 estimate), giving the country an overall population density of 30 persons
per sq km (77 per sq mi). The overwhelming majority of the population lives in
the northern highlands or coastal regions. Only a small percentage inhabits the
huge area (nearly 50 percent of the total land area) south of the Orinoco River.
| A | Principal Cities |
Venezuela is highly urbanized. Caracas
(population, 2007, 2,085,488) is the capital as well as the financial, cultural,
and commercial center of Venezuela. Located in a beautiful valley in the coastal
highlands, Caracas is a city in which modern skyscrapers and apartment houses
contrast sharply with elegant old colonial buildings and with the slum dwellings
of recent migrants from the countryside who have come to the city seeking
employment. The nearby town of La Guaira serves as the seaport for Caracas.
Maracaibo (population, 2008 estimate,
1,450,665), the country’s second largest city, is located on the shores of Lake
Maracaibo. Once a collection of crude huts built on stilts over water, Maracaibo
developed into a modern city during the 20th century, largely because of its
role as a major center of the petroleum industry. Valencia (population, 2008,
839,926), in the coastal highlands, is one of the country’s main manufacturing
centers. Barquisimeto (1,085,483), in the Andes, is the hub of several important
highways as well as a major railroad terminal.
| B | Education |
Education in Venezuela is free and
compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15. The adult literacy rate in
2005 was 94 percent. The country’s 15,984 primary and preprimary schools had a
total enrollment of 3.3 million pupils and were staffed by 185,748 teachers;
secondary schools had an enrollment of 1,543,600 students.
In 2002–2003 about 983,000 students were
enrolled in institutions of higher education, which included the Central
University of Venezuela (1721) and Andrés Bello Catholic University (1953), in
Caracas; Carabobo University (1852), in Valencia; the University of the Andes
(1785), in Mérida; the University of Zulia (1891), in Maracaibo; and the
Polytechnical Institute (1962), in Barquisimeto.
| C | Culture |
The dominant influence on the culture of
Venezuela was that of the Spanish conquerors. The Native Americans of the
country, lacking any political or cultural unity of their own, were assimilated
into the immigrant groups and had only a slight influence on the national
culture.
The distinct Venezuelan contribution to
folk legend is the llanero, or South American cowboy. The national dance,
the joropo, and popular instruments such as the maraca, a type of
rattle, and the cuatro, an instrument with four strings that resembles a
small guitar, are all associated with the llanero.
Venezuelan literature gained momentum in
the early 19th century with the appearance of writers such as Simón Rodríguez,
Andrés Bello, and Simón Bolívar. Outstanding among later writers of the 19th
century was Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde, known principally for his translations
of German poet Heinrich Heine and American writer Edgar Allan Poe. Pérez Bonalde
is considered a precursor of romanticism in Latin American literature. In the
early 20th century, novelist Teresa de la Parra became one of the most popular
women novelists of Latin America, and Rufino Blanco Fombana produced works about
life in Venezuela in the late 19th century.
Two of the best-known Venezuelan
novelists of the 20th century were former president Rómulo Gallegos and Arturo
Uslar Pietri, who ran for president in 1968. Gallegos’s works reflect the
interaction of humankind and nature. Uslar Pietri’s novel Un Retrato en la
geografia (1962, Portrayal in Geography) is an original look at Venezuelan
society in which a recently released political prisoner describes the new social
landscape that he encounters.
Venezuelan artists of the 20th century
who developed international reputations include sculptor Marisol (Escobar) and
painter and sculptor Jesús Rafael Soto. Both artists moved between Venezuela,
New York, and Paris. A museum dedicated to Soto’s work is in Ciudad
Bolívar.
Venezuela, which was regarded as one of
the less profitable colonies of Spain, lacks the splendors of Spanish
architecture that are found in other South American countries. Nevertheless, in
the second half of the 20th century, the combination of the wealth produced from
oil discoveries and strong ties with the United States helped foster the
development of modern architecture. Carlos Raúl Villanueva, who explored the
structural and expressive possibilities of reinforced concrete, is the
best-known Venezuelan architect of the 20th century. He designed the campus of
the Central University in Caracas.
See also
Latin American Architecture; Latin American Literature; Latin American
Music; Latin American Painting; Latin American Sculpture.
| D | Museums |
Some of Venezuela’s leading museums are
located in Caracas. These include the Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of
Colonial Art, the Natural Sciences Museum, and the Bolívar Museum, with displays
on the life and times of Simón Bolívar. Also of interest are the Talavera
Museum, in Ciudad Bolívar, and history museums in Maracaibo and Trujillo.
| IV | ECONOMY |
The economy of Venezuela is built upon the
nation’s rich petroleum and mineral resources. However, its reliance on
petroleum leaves the nation vulnerable to fluctuations in world markets. The
government has made numerous efforts to diversify the economy but without
success. At the beginning of the 21st century, the economy suffered from
inflation and high unemployment and underemployment. In addition political
instability had a negative effect on the economy. Opposition to President Hugo
Chávez led to a general strike in late 2002 and early 2003 that worsened the
country’s already weak economy.
Despite the strike that slowed oil
production in the early 2000s, oil revenues rose as a result of an increase in
oil prices. Chávez pledged to spend the money on social welfare, including
health and education. With the increase in oil revenues beginning in 2004,
Venezuela’s economy improved. However, critics said government spending was out
of control.
The national budget in 2005 included
revenues of $36.5 billion and expenditures of $41.1 billion. The gross domestic
product (GDP), the total of all goods and services produced within a country, in
2006 was $181.9 billion.
| A | Agriculture |
Agriculture plays a much smaller role in
Venezuela’s economy than in the economies of other South American countries.
Before the discovery of oil, agriculture provided the country’s major exports,
including coffee, cacao, cattle, and hides. Oil production, however, led to
years of neglect of the agricultural sector, and by the 1950s the country was
importing more than one-third of its food. In 1960 the government passed the
Agrarian Reform Law, which was aimed at expanding and diversifying agricultural
production. For a time food production grew rapidly, but by the mid-1970s rapid
population growth outpaced the growth in agricultural production. In addition,
much of the best farmland remained in the hands of large landowners and often
lay idle, while those who need to earn a living from the land worked the poorer
farmland. Today, Venezuela still must import much of its food. The United States
is a major supplier.
Much of the best farmland in Venezuela is
concentrated in the hands of a few large landowners, while those who need to
earn a living from the land are left with poorer land. The lack of arable land
for the poor has led to heavy migration from rural areas to the cities. In 2005
Venezuela’s president initiated plans to increase food production by breaking up
the large estates. The first step was to review land use. Ranchers objected to
inspections of their estates and declared the measures unconstitutional.
Agriculture, including forestry and
fishing, employed 11 percent of the workforce; in 2003 it contributed 5 percent
of the GDP. The principal crops include sugarcane; fruits such as bananas,
plantains, and oranges; maize; rice; and cassava. Livestock raising is carried
on chiefly on the Llanos and east of Lake Maracaibo.
| B | Forestry and Fishing |
In 2005, 52 percent of Venezuela was
forested. However, the country’s timber industry is underdeveloped largely
because of the inaccessibility of the forest areas. Timber is used mainly as
fuel and by the building, furniture manufacturing, and paper industries.
The rich fishery resources of Venezuela
include a wide variety of marine life. The fish catch in 2005 was 492,210 metric
tons. The country’s fish catch includes tuna, sardines, herrings, shrimp, and
shellfish. Important pearl fisheries are located off Margarita Island.
| C | Mining |
Petroleum, located in the Maracaibo Basin
and in the eastern part of the country, dominates the Venezuelan economy. Crude
and refined oil are the main source of government revenue and account for about
one-third of the GDP. In 2004 Venezuela produced almost 1 billion barrels. Much
of its oil is exported to the Netherlands Antilles for refining. Venezuela is a
founding member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
The Venezuelan government nationalized
the petroleum industry in 1976, although private investment and foreign
participation has been permitted since 1992. In 2007 the country had petroleum
reserves estimated at 80 billion barrels.
Venezuela also is a major producer of
natural gas; output in 2003 was 29.7 billion cubic meters (1.05 trillion cubic
feet). Venezuela has tapped its vast reserves of bitumen to produce liquid coal,
an emulsion of bitumen and water principally for use in power plants.
Other minerals commercially exploited in
Venezuela include iron ore, bauxite, diamonds, gold, silver, platinum, coal,
salt, copper, tin, asbestos, phosphates, titanium, and mica. In 2000 the country
adopted new mining regulations intended to encourage greater private-sector and
foreign investment in the mining sector. But growth failed to follow, largely
because of labor unrest.
| D | Manufacturing |
The government of Venezuela has given high
priority to the development of heavy industry since the 1960s. It established a
significant steel industry and began the production of aluminum and
petrochemicals, especially nitrogen-based fertilizers. In the late 1970s, a
significant portion of the country’s oil revenue was invested in these
state-owned industries. Ciudad Guayana, a city founded in an area rich in
natural resources, became a major industrial center. But petroleum revenues
dropped in the 1980s, as did investment in industry. By the late 1990s, the
manufacturing sector was contracting, smaller firms shut down, and jobs were
lost. Political instability in the early 2000s added to the problems of the
manufacturing sector.
The leading manufactured goods of
Venezuela include refined petroleum and petroleum products, steel, aluminum,
fertilizer, cement, tires, motor vehicles, processed food, beverages, clothing,
and wood items.
| E | Tourism |
Venezuela has a number of tourist
attractions, including its long Caribbean coastline, the Andes Mountains, and
the world’s highest waterfall (Angel Falls). However, its tourism industry
remains largely undeveloped. Most of the country’s tourists visit the beaches on
Margarita Island. More adventurous visitors seek out the wildlife and natural
beauty of the Orinoco Delta and the interior highlands and tropical
rainforests.
| F | Energy |
In 2003, 68 percent of Venezuela’s
electricity was produced in hydroelectric facilities, particularly at the Guri
Dam, a major installation on the Caroní River. Venezuela generated 87 billion
kilowatt-hours of electricity in 2003.
| G | Currency and Banking |
The basic unit of currency is the
bolivar, consisting of 100 centimos (2,147 bolivars equal U.S.$1;
2006 average). The Banco Central de Venezuela, founded in 1940, is the
government banking agent, the sole bank of issue, and the clearinghouse for
commercial banks. The country’s principal stock exchange is in Caracas.
| H | Foreign Trade |
The principal exports of Venezuela are
petroleum and petroleum products, which together account for 82 percent of
foreign sales. Other exports include bauxite and aluminum, steel, chemicals,
agricultural products, and basic manufactures. Total exports were estimated at
$25 billion in 2003.
Main imports include raw materials,
machinery, transportation equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, and basic
manufactures. Imports were estimated at $8.4 billion in 2003.
Principal trading partners for exports
are the United States, The Netherlands (primarily petroleum to the Netherlands
Antilles for refining), Brazil, and Colombia. Chief sources of imports are the
United States, Colombia, Brazil, Japan, and Mexico.
Venezuela is a member of five
international trade organizations, the Andean Community, Latin American
Integration Association (LAIA), Mercosur, Group of Three, and the Association of
Caribbean States (ACS). These organizations work toward improving conditions
within member countries by increasing economic integration and international
trade.
| I | Transportation |
Roads are the principal means of transport
for goods and people in Venezuela, and the country has an extensive road
network. In 1999 Venezuela had 96,155 km (59,748 mi) of roads, of which 34
percent were paved. Highway density is greatest in the north central area.
The railway network, by contrast, is
poorly developed. In 2005 the country had only 682 km (424 mi) of operated
railroad track, principally a line from Puerto Cabello to Barquisimeto. The
leading seaports of Venezuela include La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo.
Transport on interior waterways, particularly the Orinoco River, also is
important.
The main international airport is located
in Caracas with others located in major cities such as Maracaibo and Barcelona.
Venezuela has a number of passenger airlines based in the country.
| J | Communications |
In 2005 Venezuela had some 136 telephone
lines for every 1,000 people. The number of mobile cellular phones in use
increased substantially during the 1990s because of dissatisfaction with the
country’s phone system. An estimated 189 television sets and 301 radios were in
use for every 1,000 residents. Influential daily newspapers included Últimas
Noticias, El Mundo, El Universal, and El Nacional, all
published in Caracas.
| K | Labor |
In 2006 the employed labor force of
Venezuela was 13.3 million people. Some 11 percent of the workforce was employed
in agriculture, 69 percent in services, and 20 percent in industry, including
manufacturing, mining, and construction. However, Venezuela suffers from high
unemployment and underemployment; in 2003, 17 percent of the labor force was
unemployed. Organized labor in Venezuela consists of trade unions and peasant
leagues. The largest and most powerful organization is the Confederation of
Venezuelan Workers, with a membership of about 2.5 million.
| V | GOVERNMENT |
Venezuela is a federal republic. It is
governed under a constitution adopted in 1999. All citizens may vote beginning
at age 18.
| A | Executive |
The chief executive of Venezuela is a
president, who is popularly elected to a six-year term. A council of ministers
assists the president. The president has the authority to dissolve the
legislature under certain conditions.
| B | Legislature |
As a result of the 1999 constitution,
Venezuela’s bicameral National Congress, which consisted of a Senate and Chamber
of Deputies, was replaced by a unicameral National Assembly in 2000. Legislators
are popularly elected to a five-year term.
| C | Political Parties |
The leading political parties in Venezuela
are the Fifth Republic Movement Party (Movimiento V República, MVR), led by
President Hugo Chávez; the Democratic Action Party (Accíon Democrática, AD);
Movement Toward Socialism (Movimiento al Socialismo, MAS); Project Venezuela
(Proyecto Venezuela); and Social Christian Party of Venezuela (Partido Social
Cristiano de Venezuela, COPEI).
| D | Local Government |
Venezuela is divided into 23 states;
federal dependencies, made up of 72 islands in the Caribbean; and the Federal
District, site of Caracas, the national capital. Each of Venezuela’s 23 states
and its federal district has a popularly elected governor and legislature.
| E | Judiciary |
The highest court in Venezuela is the
Supreme Tribunal of Justice, made up of 32 judges appointed to 12-year terms by
the National Assembly. Each of the states has a superior court as well as
several lesser tribunals.
| F | Defense |
All Venezuelan males between the ages of 18
and 45 are liable for 30 months of military service. In 2004 Venezuela
maintained combined armed forces, made up of the army, navy, air force, and
national guard, of 82,300 people.
| G | Health and Welfare |
The Venezuelan government sponsors a
limited program of health, accident, and retirement insurance. The average life
expectancy at birth in 2008 was 77 years for women and 70 for men.+
| VI | HISTORY |
Christopher Columbus first sighted the coast
of Venezuela in 1498. In 1499 Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda followed the
coast to Lake Maracaibo. He named the region Venezuela, or Little Venice,
because the Native American buildings constructed on stilts along the lake’s
edge reminded him of the Italian city of Venice, which was built on a series of
islands in a lagoon.
| A | Spanish Colony |
The Spanish began settling Venezuela in
1520. In 1528 Charles V of Spain granted to the Welsers, Bavarian bankers to
whom he was in debt, the part of Venezuela lying between Cape Vela and
Maracapana. As part of the arrangement, the Welsers were to develop the region
and establish settlements. Instead, their representatives enslaved the Native
Americans and so demoralized the European settlers that in 1546 the Spanish
government revoked the grant and reassumed control.The city of Caracas was
founded in 1567.
Economic activities in the colonial period
centered on agriculture, particularly cacao and tobacco farming and some
livestock raising. Venezuela became a center of piracy and smuggling, activities
in which the English and the Dutch were the most notorious participants.
During the colonial period, Venezuela
operated under a number of administrative jurisdictions. Originally, the Spanish
authorities divided what is now Venezuelan territory between the Viceroyalty of
Peru and the Audiencia of Santo Domingo (located in what is now the Dominican
Republic). The Superintendency of Venezuela, more or less the present territory,
was created in 1783.
In 1728 the Spanish government chartered
the Guipuzcoana Company and gave it a monopoly of trade in Venezuela, with the
additional duties of patrolling the coast to prevent smuggling. The company was
very unpopular and did much to stir up political discontent in the colony. In
addition, the Spanish policy of appointing peninsulares (individuals born
in Spain) to the major administrative positions in their American colonies
caused much resentment among Creoles (Spaniards born in the colonies), who were
excluded from positions of power.
| B | Independence |
The first decisive attempt by a Spanish
American colony to gain independence from Spain was made by Venezuela. In 1808
the armies of French emperor Napoleon I overran Spain and Portugal. They deposed
Ferdinand VII of Spain. In 1810 the Creoles in the cabildo, or town
council, of Caracas overthrew the Spanish authorities and formed a junta,
or governing body, to rule in the name of the king. However, the junta soon
threw aside all pretense of loyalty to the Spanish crown and issued a formal
declaration of independence on July 5, 1811.
This first attempt to gain independence
faltered after 1812, when Spanish troops began reconquering the colony.
Francisco de Miranda, the commander in chief of the revolutionary forces, tried
to negotiate peace with the Spanish commander but was taken to Spain, where he
died in prison. Leadership in the movement for independence passed to one of his
lieutenants, Simón Bolívar, who recovered control of Caracas briefly in 1813,
only to be driven out by the Spanish a year later.
Spanish rule was solidified in Venezuela
after the arrival of a large force of Spanish troops in 1815. Bolívar, whose
forces were too weak to oppose the Spanish army, withdrew to Haiti. In 1816,
however, he returned to the mainland with a reinforced army and seized control
of the lower Orinoco Valley. Over the next few years Bolívar gathered his
forces. In 1819 Bolívar’s position was further strengthened when a congress,
convened by him at Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar), proclaimed a union of New
Granada (now Colombia and Panama), Venezuela, and Ecuador under the name of the
Republic of Colombia (also known as Gran Colombia), with Bolívar as president.
On June 24, 1821, the Spanish army was decisively beaten in Venezuela at the
Battle of Carabobo, assuring the independence of the new nation.
Venezuela seceded from the union in 1829
and formed an independent republic with its capital at Caracas. José Antonio
Páez, a hero of the revolution, served as president and remained the dominant
political figure until 1846. He was tolerant toward the Roman Catholic Church
and fostered a few measures for the stimulation of trade, agriculture, and
education.
| C | Series of Dictatorships |
The political history of Venezuela was
comparatively uneventful until the year 1846 ushered in an era of civil wars
between supporters of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. Conflict
between these two groups characterized the early history of many Latin American
countries. Liberals generally supported voting rights for all adult males, the
separation of church and state, and a weak central government that gave greater
power to the states and provinces within a nation. Conservatives advocated the
preservation of class and church privileges, close government cooperation with
the church, and a powerful central government.
In 1870 Antonio Guzmán Blanco gained
control of the country. Under his despotic rule the public debt was stabilized,
the building of railroads begun, and efforts were made to improve communications
facilities. His administration also introduced reforms at the University of
Caracas, emphasizing technological education, and rebuilt parts of the capital.
Guzmán Blanco stripped the Roman Catholic Church of much of its wealth and
authority. He retired in 1888 as a result of popular demonstrations against him.
Rival aspirants contended for the presidency until General Joaquín Crespo
brought another interval of peace and order between 1892 and 1899.
On two separate occasions during the late
19th and early 20th centuries, Venezuela became embroiled in conflicts with
European powers. The first incident took place in 1886 over a dispute with
Britain concerning the border of British Guiana (now Guyana). The United States
persuaded Britain to submit the case to an arbitration tribunal that
subsequently awarded the larger share of the territory to Britain.
The second incident occurred during the
rule of Cipriano Castro, from 1899 to 1908, when the government failed to pay
its foreign debts. In 1902 Britain, France, Germany, and several other powers
blockaded Venezuelan ports, demanding payment. On two occasions, European
warships bombarded the ports. In 1904 an international tribunal asked to rule on
the dispute decided in favor of the allies.
In 1908 General Juan Vicente Gómez deposed
Castro. Gómez established a stable government and began to pay off the country’s
vast debts. In 1917, when Gómez learned that Venezuela had large quantities of
petroleum, he called foreign oil companies together and asked them to submit
their suggestions for a partnership with the nation for the production of
petroleum. With the aid of experts, he made an agreement with the petroleum
companies that made Venezuela prosperous enough to pay off all of its public
obligations; it was the only nation in the world at that time free from debt.
Internally, Gómez ruled tyrannically from
1908 until his death in 1935, with two interruptions, from 1915 to 1922 and from
1929 to 1931. On both of these occasions, handpicked candidates under the
control of Gómez served as president. Gómez had many of his political opponents
imprisoned, tortured, or assassinated, and he treated the national treasury as
his own personal account. Gómez did little to improve education, housing, or
health care, but he oversaw the modernization of Venezuela. The stable,
oil-based economy supported major public works projects in the cities and ports,
as well as construction of highways.
Minister of War Eleazar López Contreras
succeeded Gómez as president. Contrary to precedent, López Contreras refused
reelection, turning over his administration in 1941 to his duly elected
successor, General Isaías Medina Angarita. However, Medina Angarita made no
effort to train the people to govern themselves, and his limited program of land
reform did not satisfy the liberal Democratic Action Party (AD), a political
party founded in 1941 by young reformers.
| D | World War II and Postwar Politics |
Venezuela broke off diplomatic relations
with the Axis powers at the end of 1941 and ultimately declared war on them in
1945 in order to qualify as a charter member of the United Nations.
In October 1945 a revolution broke out,
and violent fighting took place in Caracas. A new government was set up under
the presidency of a young AD leader, Rómulo Betancourt. Although foreign powers
suspected he might be sympathetic toward communism, Betancourt allayed their
fears by his declarations concerning the prompt holding of elections and a
program of acceptable reform. He also promised the foreign oil interests that no
radical action would be taken against them.
The Betancourt government brought a new
approach to government. Seven of the 11 members of the cabinet had been educated
in the United States, and all were young men. For the first time an agriculture
expert occupied that ministry and directed his efforts toward proper and
efficient use of the land. Many difficulties confronted the new government in
this field. The high wages paid by the oil companies had drawn workers from
farms. Importation of food had increased the cost of living to one of the
highest in the world. Small farms had been taken by Gómez to create a few
immense cattle ranches. The new administration announced that these ranches
would be converted into small holdings whose owners would be trained to raise a
balanced crop for the benefit of the nation as a whole.
A new constitution, adopted in 1947,
provided for popular vote by means of a secret ballot. Later in the same year,
after the first democratic election in Venezuela, Rómulo Gallegos Freire,
novelist and founder of the AD, was elected president. He took office in
February 1948. However, the AD’s extreme popularity among voters and its
proposed reform program alienated important groups, including conservative
elements in the church and the military.
In November 1948 the government was
overthrown by an army revolt, the leaders of which immediately formed a
provisional government headed by Lieutenant Colonel Carlos Delgado Chalbaud. The
junta suppressed the opposition and employed other dictatorial methods,
including censorship of news. In 1950 Delgado Chalbaud was assassinated. The
junta appointed the diplomat Germán Suárez Flámerich as provisional president,
but the main power behind the government was a military officer, Colonel Marcos
Pérez Jiménez.
The junta made elaborate plans for an
election to choose a constituent assembly that would in turn choose a president.
Electoral boards were appointed to register and poll the voters. The public was,
however, indifferent. Finally, after government threats of punishment for anyone
who did not register and vote, an election was scheduled for 1952. When early
returns showed that the opponents of the junta were clearly in the lead, the
military government suspended the election and the junta-backed government
party, the Independent Electoral Front (FEI), installed Pérez Jiménez as
president. In 1953 the constituent assembly confirmed him for a five-year term.
Leaders of the opposition left the country. Later that year the constituent
assembly approved a new constitution. The country, known officially since 1864
as the United States of Venezuela, was proclaimed the Republic of
Venezuela.
| E | The Pérez Jiménez Regime |
Venezuela’s enormous oil revenues allowed
the Pérez Jiménez government to undertake construction of roads, bridges,
railroads, and public buildings. One of the larger projects undertaken was the
rebuilding of the center of Caracas. However, the government spent a great deal
of money on military installations that became obsolete upon completion, and it
made no efforts to improve agriculture, education, or standards of public
health. Members of the administration embezzled vast sums of money, with Pérez
Jiménez himself accumulating an enormous fortune.
The government maintained generally good
contacts with other American countries, and the Tenth International Conference
of American States was held in Caracas in 1954. Venezuela, however, broke off
diplomatic relations with Argentina in 1957, after having rejected numerous
Argentine complaints concerning the activities in Caracas of former Argentine
dictator Juan Perón.
Jiménez ruthlessly suppressed all
criticism of his regime. The government drove opponents into hiding or exile,
and the secret police carried out mass jailings and tortured political
prisoners. Until late 1957, however, the administration appeared stable. As the
time for the 1957 national election approached, Pérez Jiménez jailed all known
opposition leaders, including Rafael Caldera Rodríguez, leader of the Social
Christian Party (COPEI). In December the government held a plebiscite, the
results of which showed that 2,353,935 of a total of 2,900,543 voters approved
of Pérez Jiménez and his regime.
The people, already resentful of the
dictatorship, reacted violently to the official announcement of the referendum.
On January 21, 1958, a general strike in Caracas signaled the start of a popular
uprising. Rioting broke out in the streets of Caracas. The situation culminated
in two days and nights of terror, during which police killed about 300 citizens.
Pérez Jiménez fled the country and a group of military officers and civilians,
known as the Patriotic Junta and led by Rear Admiral Wolfgang Larrazábal, seized
control of the government.
| F | Democratic Governments |
In 1957 the Larrazábal government released
leading political prisoners. Other opposition leaders returned from exile. In
elections held in 1958, former president Betancourt of the AD was reelected.
The new administration restored the
country’s credit, which was severely weakened by the Pérez Jiménez regime,
expanded social welfare projects, provided increased educational opportunities,
and encouraged foreign investment. The government also raised income taxes,
primarily in the higher income brackets, to secure funds for development
projects. A land reform bill aimed at giving 700,000 farmers land of their own
was passed in 1960, and the government promoted diversification of the economy.
The five years of the Betancourt
administration were marked by almost continuous efforts by extremists of both
the right and the left to unseat the government. Both groups of extremists
received support from outside Venezuela. In 1960 the Organization of American
States (OAS) voted sanctions against the Dominican Republic, then under the
control of the dictator Rafael Trujillo, for supporting right-wing efforts to
assassinate Betancourt. Diplomatic relations with Cuba were severed in November,
following charges by the Venezuelan government that the disorders had been
orchestrated in large part on orders of Cuba’s Communist leader, Fidel Castro.
During 1962 and 1963 leftist groups attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the
government.
President Betancourt promulgated a new
constitution in January 1961. Despite constitutional provisions guaranteeing
various rights to labor and expressing opposition to large landed estates,
social unrest and rioting continued throughout 1961.
Elections in 1963 brought Raúl Leoni of
the ruling AD to the presidency. For the first time in Venezuela’s history,
there was a peaceful transfer of power from one constitutionally elected regime
to another. Lacking a congressional majority, Leoni formed a coalition
government. The Leoni government also tried to increase agricultural
productivity and to expand industries, and it moved ahead with the agrarian
reform program. For the next few years Venezuela enjoyed a large measure of
political stability. In October 1966, however, a military uprising broke out,
led by the national guard garrison near Caracas. It was crushed by the
government, which had also been combating guerrilla activity (see
Guerrilla Warfare) in the countryside and in the capital throughout the
year.
| G | Nationalization Measures |
Toward the end of the decade, the
political life of the nation gained some tranquility. In 1968 Rafael Caldera
Rodríguez, leader of COPEI, won a narrow election victory, largely because of a
split in the AD. Despite his narrow support, Caldera governed effectively and
virtually eliminated the guerrilla and terrorist activities of the late 1960s.
Economically, he pursued a policy of nationalizing foreign enterprises. In 1973
Venezuela joined the increasingly effective Andean Community, an organization of
South American countries located along the Andes Mountains, whose aim is to
facilitate development of member nations through economic and social
cooperation.
Political activity was brisk in 1973 as
the presidential elections neared. In May the congress ratified a constitutional
amendment barring the candidacy of former president Pérez Jiménez. In the
December elections, the winner was Carlos Andrés Pérez, the leader of the AD. He
attempted to improve relations with Venezuela’s neighbors but took an
increasingly independent line from the United States. He expressed open
hostility to the military dictatorship that had gained control of Chile in 1973
and resumed diplomatic relations with the Communist government of Cuba. Pérez
nationalized the iron and steel industry in 1975 and the oil industry in 1976.
The 1978 elections were won by COPEI and
its presidential candidate, Luís Herrera Campíns. Under the Herrera government
the economy entered a long recession, despite a near doubling of the country’s
income from oil exports. Venezuela’s foreign indebtedness tripled, to more than
$34 billion, and the cost of living nearly doubled. The 1983 elections resulted
in a sweeping victory for the AD, and its candidate, Jaime Lusinchi, took office
as president. Confronted by falling world oil prices and heavy obligations to
pay interest and principal on the foreign debt, Lusinchi initially followed
austerity policies that prolonged the recession. However, these policies enabled
Venezuela, alone among Latin American countries, to pay its foreign creditors in
full and on time. Nevertheless, the country was unable to get new loans from
foreign bankers. When economic growth resumed in 1986, it was accompanied by
domestic inflation, which doubled the cost of living within two years.
The AD also won the 1988 elections,
resulting in a second presidency for Carlos Andrés Pérez, who faced a serious
economic crisis. Venezuela’s national income per person was less than 75 percent
of its 1977 level, and the international value of its currency had fallen by
almost 90 percent in five years. In 1989 consumer price increases imposed as
part of an austerity program triggered violent protests in Caracas that were
suppressed by the authorities, causing at least several hundred deaths.
Emergency loans from the United States and other countries helped ease the
crisis, as did increased revenue from oil exports. However, continued popular
discontent with government policies, including attempts at selling
government-owned industries to private companies, led to defeats of the AD in
local elections. In 1991 Venezuela and the other members of the Andean Community
signed a treaty that would establish the Andean Common Market.
In 1992 two military coup attempts were
crushed, one in February and another in November. Pérez was suspended from
office in May 1993, after the Senate voted unanimously to have him stand trial
on charges of embezzlement and misuse of public funds. Senator Ramón José
Velásquez was elected interim president, pending elections in 1993. In December
1993 Rafael Caldera was again elected president.
In January 1994 the nation’s second
largest bank, Banco Latino, collapsed, precipitating an economic crisis. The
crisis affected several other banks, prompting a strong response from the
central government. By August, 13 banks had been nationalized, including several
of the largest in Venezuela. Citing immediate necessity and coup rumors,
President Caldera announced the suspension of some civil and economic rights in
order to help the government arrest those responsible for the banking collapse
and to prevent speculation and inflation.
| H | Privatization Measures |
In September 1994 Caldera announced a new
economic plan, designed to pull the country out of its economic slump. The
standard of living of the country’s middle class had fallen. The percentage of
the average household’s income spent on food had increased from 28 percent to
nearly 70 percent in 25 years. Caldera’s new plan called for reducing inflation
and the deficit, an increase in foreign investment and foreign currency
holdings, a reduction in the dependence on oil tax revenues, improvements in tax
collection, and a rise in the domestic price of oil. Public unrest over the
government’s handling of the crisis continued periodically throughout 1994 as
demonstrators protested price increases.
In 1995 the National Congress approved a
bill that allowed foreign oil companies to carry out joint exploration and
production ventures with Venezuela’s state-owned oil company. Although the
government decided to allow private investment in the oil industry, agreements
with investors stipulated that the state would take close to 90 percent of the
industry’s profits.
Foreign investment was also encouraged to
exploit the gold deposits discovered near the country’s western border. Taxes on
mining companies were cut, and the central bank’s monopoly on purchasing gold
was ended.
Also in 1995 the government restored the
civil liberties suspended the previous year and drastically reduced government
subsidies for automobile fuel. In 1996 the sales tax was also raised from 12.5
percent to 16.5 percent. These measures were meant to slow inflation and foster
balance and growth of the economy. However, Venezuelans saw the cost of living
double in 1996, while wages remained steady. In 1997 the government gave in to
public pressure and granted a 77 percent raise to government workers.
| I | Chávez’s Rule |
A crisis in Asian financial markets in
1997 and a slump in world oil prices in 1998 caused a downturn in the Venezuelan
economy. In the 1998 presidential election, Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías, a former
military officer who had participated in two failed coup attempts in 1992, won
the presidency. Chávez ran without support from Venezuela’s two major political
parties. During the campaign he promised to end government corruption and to
provide better economic conditions for the large number of Venezuelans living in
poverty.
In April 1999 voters approved a
referendum calling for the election of a constituent assembly to write a new
constitution. The constituent assembly was elected in July, with candidates from
Chávez’s Patriotic Pole coalition winning most of the 131 seats. When the
constituent assembly convened in August, it assumed most of the National
Congress’s duties, in addition to drafting a constitution.
In a referendum in December 1999 more
than 70 percent of those casting ballots voted in favor of the new constitution,
which renamed the country the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and gave the
president more power. The presidential term was increased from five to six
years, and presidents were no longer barred from serving consecutive terms in
office. A unicameral National Assembly replaced the bicameral National Congress.
The constitution gave the executive branch of the federal government many powers
previously held by state and local governments and reduced civilian control of
the military. Provisions promoted as anticorruption measures allowed voters to
revoke legislation or recall elected officials, including the president, through
referenda.
Also in December 1999, torrential rains
caused devastating floods in the northern coastal states. Mudslides destroyed
whole villages. It was estimated that more than 400,000 Venezuelans lost their
homes and as many as 30,000 died.
While the nation dug out from the
disastrous mudslides, the new constitution took effect. The constituent assembly
resigned in January 2000, its work completed. Presidential and congressional
elections were held in July 2000. Chávez easily won reelection, and his
coalition won a simple majority in the new unicameral assembly.
In a development that further enhanced
Chávez’s power, the National Assembly voted in November 2000 to grant the
president authority for one year to rule by decree on topics ranging from public
finance to land reform. The law passed despite complaints from opposition
parties that the measure granted too much authority to Chávez.
| I1 | Opposition to Chávez |
As his presidency progressed, Chávez
became increasingly unpopular among the upper and middle classes due to his
economic reforms and disputes with business leaders. In April 2002 at least 17
people were killed in a march in Caracas to protest Chávez’s policies, and some
people claimed that his supporters had killed the protestors. Military leaders
then forced Chávez from power in a coup d'état. The next day tens of thousands
of people, mainly the urban and rural poor, marched throughout the country to
protest Chávez’s ouster. In response to the protests, the military returned
Chávez to power less than three days after it had removed him.
Although Chávez regained the
presidency, many people continued to oppose his policies. In December 2002 a
loose coalition that included labor unions, business leaders, and the Democratic
Action Party organized a general strike to protest Chávez’s leadership. During
the nearly three-month strike, many businesses, banks, and schools closed, and
employees of the state-owned oil company slowed oil production. The strike
devastated Venezuela’s already weak economy, and the country faced severe
economic problems including high unemployment and inflation.
| I2 | Recall Vote and After |
High oil prices in 2004, however,
helped the economy recover, and Chávez funneled millions in government revenues
to aid literacy and health programs for Venezuela’s slum dwellers. That aid
helped Chávez solidify his base among the poor while his opposition mounted a
petition drive to recall him from office. The Democratic Coordinator, an
umbrella group of organizations opposing the president, succeeded in gathering
enough signatures for a referendum in August 2004 to recall Chávez two years
before his term was to expire.
Chávez easily defeated the recall
attempt, however, winning 59 percent of the vote. The opposition charged the
voting was fraudulent, but international monitors from the Organization of
American States (OAS) and the Carter Center of Atlanta, Georgia, led by former
U.S. president Jimmy Carter, said the election was free and fair. Carter said
the charges of fraud were “completely unwarranted.”
In legislative elections held in
December 2005, politicians allied with Chávez captured all 167 seats in
Venezuela’s National Assembly. A number of the major opposition parties
boycotted the election, claiming the electoral system was biased, and only about
25 percent of eligible voters cast ballots.
Opposition parties returned to the
electoral process in the 2006 presidential elections, but they made little
headway among voters. Chávez was reelected by a wide margin as most Venezuelans
appeared to support his policies of redistributing the country’s oil revenues,
especially to benefit the poor and working class. Chávez won 63 percent of the
vote in an election that saw a relatively high turnout.
Following the presidential election,
Chávez asked the National Assembly for the power to rule by decree for a period
of 18 months. Critics charged that Chávez was trying to create an authoritarian
regime with all powers concentrated in his hands. They said the move was
unnecessary in view of the fact that Chávez’s supporters control the
legislature, the Supreme Court, and all but two states. Supporters of the
president said the ability to rule by decree would give Chávez the power to
implement his program to move Venezuela toward socialism without delay. They
noted that the National Assembly had passed a similar Enabling Law in 2000,
under which Chávez issued more than 40 decrees. In late January 2007 the
National Assembly unanimously approved four measures that gave Chávez the power
to rule by decree in 11 broadly defined areas, such as the economy, energy, and
defense, for a period of 18 months.
Following passage of the legislation,
Chávez nationalized the telecommunications, electrical power, and oil
industries. By July 2007 he had successfully negotiated agreements with most of
the foreign oil companies operating in Venezuela to take control of at least 60
percent of their oil drilling and refining operations in the Orinoco region.
Only ConocoPhillips and Exxon Mobil Corporation refused the terms of the
takeover, though they continued to negotiate. More controversially, however,
Chávez also moved to close down or take control of media outlets. His refusal in
May to renew the broadcast license of Radio Caracas Televisión (RCTV) met with
mass protests and denunciations by human rights groups. Chávez’s defenders
pointed out that RCTV played a prominent role in supporting the 2002 coup
attempt against Chávez. They said a number of influential media outlets,
including two leading newspapers in Caracas, remained privately owned and were
allowed to publish while being openly critical of Chávez. However, Chávez’s
critics countered that the government was opening new state-run television and
radio stations and that government advertising in pro-Chávez newspapers had
increased 12 times.
| I3 | Referendum on Term Limits |
Chávez suffered the first major
electoral defeat of his political career in December 2007 when voters narrowly
rejected, by 51 to 49 percent, a referendum on 69 proposed amendments to the
Venezuelan constitution. The amendment that drew the most attention and
opposition was one that would have removed term limits on the president,
allowing Chávez to seek another term in 2012 and beyond. Chávez argued that the
measures were necessary to speed Venezuela’s transformation to a socialist
society.
However, the term limit amendment,
along with one that would have given Chávez the power to declare a state of
emergency for an unlimited period, alienated some of his more moderate
supporters, including the leader of a leftist political party and a prominent
retired general who had supported Chávez against the 2002 coup attempt. The
proposed amendments also cost him some support in poor neighborhoods, where
voter turnout was not as high as during the 2006 presidential election. Chávez
indicated that he would respect the will of the voters.
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