| I | INTRODUCTION |
Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand
(Prathet Thai, or “Land of the Free”), country in Southeast Asia.
Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never to have been occupied by any
European or other foreign power, except in war. The country was an absolute
monarchy from 1782 until 1932, when rebels seized power in a coup and
established a constitutional monarchy. Since then, Thailand has come under the
rule of many governments, both civil and military. The country was known as Siam
until 1939 (when it was renamed Thailand), and again for a few years in the late
1940s. In 1949 the name Thailand was adopted a second time.
Central Thailand is dominated by a large
fertile plain, formed by the country’s chief river, the Chao Phraya, and its
tributaries. Much of the country’s rice and other crops are grown in this
region. Mountains and plateaus surround the central plain on the west, north,
and east. The western mountain ranges extend south onto the Malay Peninsula
(Malaya). Bangkok, located on the Chao Phraya near the Gulf of Thailand, is
Thailand’s capital and largest city.
Thai people form the large majority of
Thailand’s population, and most of them practice Theravada Buddhism. Other
ethnic groups within the population include Chinese, Malays, and indigenous hill
peoples, such as the Hmong and Karen. Thailand is known for its highly refined
classical music and dance and for a wide range of folk arts. Traditionally based
on agriculture, Thailand’s economy began developing rapidly in the 1980s.
The Introduction to this article was
contributed by Philip Stott.
| II | LAND AND RESOURCES OF THAILAND |
Thailand is bordered on the west and northwest
by Myanmar (formerly Burma); on the northeast and east by Laos and Cambodia; and
on the south by the Gulf of Thailand (also known as the Gulf of Siam, the
northwestern portion of the South China Sea), peninsular Malaysia, and the
Andaman Sea. With an area of 513,115 sq km (198,115 sq mi), Thailand is similar
in size to France. Its distinctive shape is often compared to an elephant’s
head, with the “trunk” extending south into the slender Malay Peninsula. This
unusual shape means that Thailand is more than twice as long from north to south
(about 1,770 km/1,100 mi) as it is wide from east to west (about 800 km/500 mi).
The country as a whole pivots around the Gulf of Thailand.
| A | Natural Regions |
Thailand comprises five major natural
regions. The first is the country’s heartland: a wide alluvial plain whose
fertile soils are replenished by the Chao Phraya and other rivers flowing out of
the northern mountains. This central plain has been described as one of the
“rice bowls” of Asia because of its high agricultural productivity. The plain
was originally a swamp, created by a much older river system that was partially
submerged when the sea level rose at the end of the last Ice Age (about 10,000
years ago). The plain is still subject to severe flooding during the wet season
of the southwest monsoon (approximately April to September).
Thailand’s second natural region consists of
mountain ranges lying north of the central plain. Oriented on a north-south
axis, the ranges are formed of granite and limestone. Separating them are
valleys, where the first Thai settled between the 9th and the 14th centuries.
Thailand’s highest mountain, Doi Inthanon, rises among the northern mountains
southwest of the city of Chiang Mai to a height of 2,595 m (8,514 ft). The
northern ranges are part of a wider mountain system that was created when
sections of the Indo-Australian plate moved north, pressing against the Eurasian
continental plate and forcing up the Himalayas and the mountains of Indonesia.
See also Plate Tectonics.
Thailand’s third natural region, which lies
to the west along the border with Myanmar, is also marked by north-south
trending mountains. These mountains create a natural frontier that is breached
at Three Pagodas Pass, which has been a strategic crossing point and defense
outpost throughout Thailand’s history.
To the east of the central plain, the
Khorat Plateau, an undulating sandstone area that rarely rises above 200 m (660
ft), forms the fourth natural region. Dry and infertile, the plateau is drained
by tributaries of the Mekong River.
Lastly, a long peninsula—part of the
greater Malay Peninsula—makes up the south of the country, forming the fifth
region. Although dominated by north-south mountains, this region is also noted
for its coastal beaches and its many islands, some formed of limestone.
| B | Rivers |
The central river of Thailand is the Chao
Phraya, also known in Thailand as Menam (“Mother of Waters”) Chao Phraya. Along
with a number of shifting, unstable distributaries, the Chao Phraya drains the
central plain into the Gulf of Thailand. The river forms at Nakhon Sawan, the
head of the central plain, where it receives the waters of four other important
rivers, the Nan, Ping, Wang, and Yom. These rivers flow out from the northern
mountains. Downstream, the Chao Phraya is fed by waters from the Pa Sak River
flowing from the edge of the Khorat Plateau in the east. At its mouth, the Chao
Phraya is tidal and is fringed with nipa palms. The river is subject to both
flooding and drought. In areas subject to such frequent flooding, the
inhabitants adapted by developing the traditional Thai stilt house. Thailand’s
other important rivers are the Chi and the Mun, which drain the Khorat Plateau
eastward into the Mekong River.
| C | Coastline |
Thailand has a long and intricate
coastline measuring 3,200 km (2,000 mi). It faces the Andaman Sea in the west
and the Gulf of Thailand in the east and south. The coast is characterized both
by rocky shoreline and more gentle shorelines with mangrove swamps, beaches, and
offshore coral reefs. Resorts built on Thailand’s beaches are popular tourist
destinations, and some, such as Pattaya in the southeast and Hua Hin in the
south, have become particularly famous.
| D | Plant and Animal Life |
Thailand’s natural vegetation includes a
wide range of forest types. In the south, tropical semievergreen rain forests
are most common. In the north, two types of forests grow: monsoon forests,
characterized by dense-growing, broadleaf deciduous trees, and savanna forests,
in which grasses and sedges (grasslike flowering plants with triangular stems)
grow beneath open stands of widely spaced trees. During the dry season, in both
the monsoon and savanna forests, the trees shed their leaves and fires can
occur. The monsoon forests are particularly noted for their useful species of
trees and plants, including teak, which is highly valued for its strength and
durability, and many types of bamboo. The forests abound in orchids, which are
widely collected and grown in gardens.
Many animal species inhabit Thailand’s
forests. Elephants, traditionally used as beasts of burden, are raised in
captivity but also live in the wild. Other large animals native to Thailand
include the rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, gaur (wild ox), water buffalo, and
gibbon. Thailand has more than 50 species of snakes, including several poisonous
varieties. Crocodiles are numerous, as are fish and birds. Other animals, such
as the Schomburgk’s deer of the central plain, have become extinct.
| E | Natural Resources |
Thailand possesses a range of mineral
resources. Tin is mined in the peninsula. Important gemstones, such as
sapphires, are found in the southeast, and coal reserves, particularly lignite,
are in the north. Fish are abundant in rivers and coastal waters. In addition to
being consumed domestically, fish are also exported.
| F | Climate |
Thailand experiences a typical monsoon
climate. Winds blow from the northeast during the winter months of October to
March or April (known as the “dry season”), while rain-bearing monsoon winds
blow from the southwest during the summer months of April or May to September
(the “wet season”). This remarkable annual wind reversal is related to changes
in air pressure and temperature taking place above the high Tibetan Plateau. Due
to these shifting winds, Thailand’s climate varies markedly throughout the year.
Conditions depend on the direction of the winds in relation to the north-south
trending mountain systems.
During the wet season each year, average
rainfall is 1,500 mm (60 in), and during the dry season, rainfall averages
between 150 and 250 mm (6 and 10 in). The Thai portion of the Malay Peninsula
typically receives a large amount of rainfall, averaging 2,600 mm (100 in) per
year, whereas northeastern Thailand normally experiences much less rainfall
(1,300 mm/50 in per year). Temperatures are somewhat higher inland than they are
along the coast, except at points of high elevation. In the south and center of
the country, temperatures vary little from month to month, while in the northern
hills temperatures are cooler during the wet season. In Bangkok, highs average
35°C (95°F) in April (usually the hottest month) but fall to 21°C (70°F) in
December.
| G | Environmental Issues |
Many environmentalists regard the loss of
forest in Thailand as a serious problem. In 1960 Thailand was more than 50
percent forested. Since then, however, deforestation has eliminated over half of
Thailand’s woodlands. Forests now cover 28 percent of the country, and
deforestation continues at a rate of 0.6 percent per year. Some
environmentalists claim that deforestation has caused major landslides, lowered
the water table, affected local climates, and reduced animal and plant
diversity. More than 30 mammal species, for example, including the tiger, are
threatened with local extinction. The destruction of coastal mangrove swamps and
the resulting movement of sediment into the sea have damaged both fisheries and
coral reefs. In and around Thailand’s cities, rivers and canals are heavily
polluted. Notorious traffic congestion and air pollution afflict Bangkok.
The Land and Resources section of this
article was contributed by Philip Stott.
| III | PEOPLE AND SOCIETY OF THAILAND |
Thailand (known until 1939 as Siam) has
never been heavily populated. In 1668 an Indian king was reported to have
commented somewhat disparagingly to a Siamese visitor that “the King of Golconda
is a king of men, while your king is only a king of the forests and the
mosquitoes!” By the 1800s Thailand’s population remained low at 2,000,000, and
by 1950 it had risen to only 20,041,628. By 2008 the total population had
increased to 65,493,298, giving a population density of 128 persons per sq km
(332 per sq mi), still one of the lowest in Asia.
Residents of cities are 32 percent of
Thailand’s inhabitants. More than 10 percent is concentrated in Bangkok, where
serious problems of overcrowding do exist. Since World War II, a significant
number of rural Thai have moved from the countryside to cities in search of
better economic opportunities. Many Thai people also have migrated abroad either
on a permanent basis, mainly to the United States and Canada, or on a temporary
one, as migrant laborers, to other Southeast Asian countries (such as Singapore)
and to countries of the Middle East.
With an annual rate of population growth of
0.6 percent, Thailand’s population is expected to double in 108 years. However,
family size is falling. The Thai have a long tradition of family planning and
the use of contraception, which partly reflects the fact that women gain status
through their ability to trade rather than through family size. In 2008 the
birthrate was 13.6 births per 1,000 people, and the average number of children
per woman was 1.6. The proportion of the Thai population that is elderly has
grown in recent decades, with 8 percent of the population age 65 or older in
2008. This number is expected to reach 14 percent by 2025.
| A | Principal Cities |
Bangkok, known in Thai as Krung Thep
(“City of Angels”), is Thailand’s capital and largest city, and it dominates the
country politically and economically. A seaport located in the southern part of
the central plain on the estuary of the Chao Phraya, it became the capital of
Siam in 1782, following Thon Buri, which was the capital from 1767 to 1782, and
Ayutthaya (1351-1767). Bangkok is a vibrant city, in which the old blends with
the new. Within the city, traditional, multicolored temples (wat) and
royal palaces are dwarfed by modern skyscrapers. Bangkok suffers from notorious
traffic congestion, annual flooding, and severe air pollution. Migration to
Bangkok from north and northeast Thailand has swelled the city’s population.
Other important Thai cities include
Nakhon Ratchasima, an industrial city in east Thailand; Nonthaburi, a suburb of
Bangkok; Chiang Mai, the largest city in the northern mountains; and Songkhla, a
coastal city in the southern peninsula. Chiang Mai and Songkhla are noted for
their tourist attractions.
| B | Ethnic Groups |
Although the majority of Thailand’s
people (about 75 percent) are classified as Thai, the country has a complex
ethnic composition. The Thai themselves vary considerably, with those of the
central plain differing markedly in culture and language from those of the north
and northeast, known as the Lao. Many Thai have some Chinese ancestry, and
Chinese constitute the largest single minority group in the country (about 14
percent of the total population).
The mountains of northern Thailand are
home to a number of different hill peoples, including the Akha, the Hmong (also
known as the Meo or Miao), the Karen, and the Lua’. Most of these peoples
practice slash-and-burn agriculture. Many produce dry hill (or upland) rice, and
some, such as the Hmong, produce opium. Farther south are populations of Mon
people as well as groups of Khmer (Cambodian) and Vietnamese refugees. The
southern peninsula is home to ethnic Malays.
| C | Language |
Thailand’s official language is standard
Thai, formerly known as Siamese, which is spoken by about 40 percent of the
population. Thai is the predominant member of the Tai family of languages, which
includes about 60 languages spoken throughout Southeast Asia. The Tai languages
are difficult to place linguistically but usually are linked to either the
Sino-Tibetan or Austronesian language families. Standard Thai is written in the
Thai alphabet, derived from the Indian Devanagari script, and is characterized
by the use of five tones. A strong Thai literary tradition goes back to the 13th
century.
Another 50 percent of Thailand’s
population speak Tai languages other than Thai, such as Lao, spoken in the
northeast. Most educated Thai speak English, and Chinese is also widely used.
English, Chinese, and Japanese are often the languages of commerce. The
Mon-Khmer family of languages is represented both among the hill peoples of the
north and in lowland groups of Mon and Khmer peoples. Some Malay is spoken in
the south.
| D | Religion |
Theravada Buddhism is the prevailing
religion in Thailand, with about 95 percent of the Thai majority being Theravada
Buddhist. Theravada is a school of Buddhist belief that spread to Thailand
beginning in the 13th century, primarily via Sri Lanka. Thailand’s most
characteristic architectural feature is the wat, the Thai Buddhist
temple, of which there are an estimated 18,000. Nearly all Thai men enter a
Buddhist monastery for at least a few days or months.
Despite the predominance of Buddhism,
Thai religion is highly syncretic, meaning that it combines different systems of
religious practice and belief. Many Buddhist ceremonies include elements of
animism (worship of objects and phenomena of nature), Hinduism, and even
Christianity. Small Muslim groups, comprising about 7 percent of the population,
are found throughout the country, especially in the southern peninsula (see
Islam). Some hill peoples, including members of the Karen, are Roman
Catholic, while missionaries from Europe and North America have converted others
to Protestantism. Very few ethnic Thai have converted to Western religions.
| E | Education |
An estimated 96 percent of Thailand’s
population is literate. The country has a comprehensive educational system that
extends from kindergarten to university and adult education. Education is free
and compulsory for 9 years beginning at age 6, and 97 percent of primary-school
aged children are enrolled. About 81 percent of students continue to secondary
education, which normally finishes at age 17. The country has a wide range of
private schools, from international schools to palace and experimental schools.
Thailand has a growing university sector,
and 38 percent of Thais of university age are enrolled. Universities include the
prestigious Chulalongkorn University, Mahidol University (a medical school),
Kasetsart University (for agriculture, forestry, and fisheries), Thammasat
University (for the social sciences), Silpakorn University (for fine arts), and
the Asian Institute of Technology, all located in Bangkok, and Chiang Mai
University, in the north. The country also has a number of teacher-training
colleges. Many Thai students choose to study abroad, especially in North
America, Europe, Australia, and Japan.
| F | Way of Life |
The Thai have always been an agricultural
people of the lowland valleys and intermontane basins, where they cultivated wet
rice with the use of water buffalo and harvested a wide range of fish and
shellfish from the rivers and the sea. These occupations were often
supplemented, especially in the north and northeast, by the collection of forest
products, ranging from timber, such as teak and bamboo, to foods stored for
consumption during the dry season. In the northern mountain valleys,
Tai-speaking peoples developed an intricate system of small-scale irrigation,
called muang fai. The eventual move to the great central plain
necessitated the development of canals for transportation and, from the
late-19th century onwards, of much larger irrigation and flood-control systems.
Small nuclear families occupied villages, comprising a wat and wooden houses on
stilts. The pattern of life was governed above all by the seasonal rhythm of the
monsoons and by a series of important religious festivals. Many of these
festivals were closely associated with fertility and the arrival and ending of
the rains.
The Thai are now an increasingly
urbanized people, with a strong interest in shopping and trade. Thai cookery is
considered one of the world’s great cuisines, known for its range of subtle
spices and sauces. Favorite Thai foods include salads of meat, fish, and
vegetables; soups; curries (stews flavored with a blend of ground spices); and
tropical fruits.
| G | Social Issues |
Thailand faces a number of social
problems. Corruption affects government, business, and even the Buddhist
monkhood (known as the sangha), and the press frequently reports
scandals. Drugs and drug trafficking are ongoing concerns. In rural areas, many
tropical diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever, and cholera, remain a threat.
Wide social gaps—between rich and poor, city and countryside—compound these
problems.
The People and Society section of this
article was contributed by Philip Stott.
| IV | CULTURE OF THAILAND |
In the 13th century two Thai chiefs united
to form the kingdom of Sukhothai, the first Thai state. Lasting until the 15th
century, Sukhothai set forth a cultural foundation that developed throughout
Thailand’s history and continues today. Under Ramkhamhaeng, who ruled over
Sukhothai during the late 13th century and greatly expanded its territory, the
kingdom experienced a period of artistic growth. Ramkhamhaeng is credited with
developing the Thai alphabet and producing the first written inscription. The
various people living within the kingdom were united in part by Theravada
Buddhism, which had spread to the area from Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). Fostered by
the tenets of this new religion, Sukhothai reached a golden age of artistic
achievement during the 14th and 15th centuries. In this period, artisans
produced artifacts of exceptional quality in stone, bronze, and fired clay.
In the mid-14th century the kingdom of
Ayutthaya was founded in southern Thailand. It rapidly became a major power in
the region, ultimately absorbing the kingdom of Sukhothai as well as the Khmer
(Cambodian) kingdom of Angkor. Located on an island in the Chao Phraya River
with access to the sea, Ayutthaya lay well situated to serve as a port for the
increasing regional trade and for religious pilgrimages and commercial ventures
from Europe. Extended contact with foreign cultures and the solidarity of the
kingdom inspired a flowering of the arts. Ayutthaya lasted until the second half
of the 18th century, when it was sacked by the Burmese.
Today, the fundamental characteristics of
traditional Thai culture still prevail in many mediums. However, certain art
forms, such as painting, sometimes synthesize the ideals of Thai beauty and form
with Western-influenced modern concepts.
| A | Literature |
Thai literature evolved from a
longstanding oral tradition of myths and legends, handed down through the
generations. Themes were based on the Ramakien (a Thai version of the
Ramayana, one of the great Sanskrit epics of ancient India) and on
the Jataka tales, stories of the former lives of the Buddha. Sunthorn Phu
was a classical poet of the early 19th century Thai court who wrote renowned
romantic epic poems.
In the late 19th century the first modern
Thai poetry, short stories, and novels appeared. These works addressed everyday
social issues of common Thai people. Notable 20th-century authors include Phya
Anuman Rajadhon (pseudonym Sathira Koses) and Kukrit Pramoj, a former prime
minister who wrote acclaimed short stories and novels.
| B | Architecture and Sculpture |
The most celebrated architectural form of
Thailand is the wat, the Thai Buddhist temple complex. The wat comprises several
buildings that serve the religious needs of the laity and the monastic
community. Buddhist structures from India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Cambodia
influenced the form and decoration of the wat. The temples often have
multitiered roofs with rust-colored glazed tiles and overhanging eaves; wooden
finials (crowning ornaments) in the shape of mythical beasts; and gold-gilded
beams, ridges, and pillars. Ornamental features are often intricately decorated
with mosaics of colored glass, mirrors, porcelain, and inlaid mother-of-pearl.
Among the country’s many well-known and greatly admired temples are Wat Phra
Kaeo (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) and Wat Arun (Temple of Dawn), both in
Bangkok.
Stone and bronze depictions of the Buddha
in sitting, standing, walking, or reclining positions are characteristic Thai
sculptural forms. Classic features, such as an oval face and a flamelike
protuberance at the head that is seen in works from the Sukhothai period,
continue in modern renditions.
| C | Painting, Ceramics, and Crafts |
Temple mural paintings are one of
Thailand’s great artistic achievements. Bold, vibrant colors enhanced with gold
leaf adorn walls in many temple buildings in a tapestry-like motif. The scenes,
which cover entire walls, are inspired by Buddhist doctrines and usually
intended to teach worshipers about religion and morality. They are painted
without depth, shadow, or perspective. Some Thai artists, particularly those who
have traveled abroad for training or exhibitions, are experimenting with
combining Thai Buddhist concepts and western abstraction. Others are producing
paintings that maintain traditional Thai cultural values but reflect problems in
society.
Glazed ceramics are also one of the
classic Thai arts. Architectural ceramics adorned the numerous temples built by
the kingdom of Sukhothai. Thai glazed ware later included bowls, dishes, jars,
bottles, and pots made for export to other areas of Southeast Asia.
The Thai crafts of cotton and silk weaving
have a long tradition of royal patronage and continue to reflect the country’s
distinct national identity. In weaving centers in the north, the northeast, and
parts of the south, weavers reproduce traditional Thai patterns. Other crafts
include ornamental woodcarving, lacquerwork, and mother-of-pearl inlay. The
country is also known for its metalwork, including intricate use of twisted and
soldered metal threads to form a filigree pattern.
| D | Music, Dance, and Theater |
Thai classical dance developed from the
court music of India. Today, the movements of Thai dance and the music
accompanying it remain predominantly Indian, although some of the instruments
used in a Thai orchestra are unique. A typical work begins with a structured
composition that evolves naturally into improvisation. The music and dance of
Thailand is closely related to that of Cambodia and Laos. Themes are often drawn
from the Ramakien and focus on Rama and his beautiful wife Sita.
Private and government-sponsored groups
have been working to preserve Thailand’s heritage in music and dance. The
premier dance troupe at Srinakharinwirot University has achieved international
acclaim for its performances abroad, which have included venues in the United
Kingdom, Europe, the United States, and Asia. Some dancers have received royal
titles conferred by the king in recognition of their contributions.
Thailand’s traditional form of theater is
khon (masked drama), which is based on ancient court rituals and depicts
tales from the Ramakien. Performances involve elaborate, colorful masks and
costumes and highly formalized action. Lakhon, less formal than khon, is
a dance-drama involving elegant and fluid movement performed without masks. In
nang yai, large, black shadow puppets made from cowhide are manipulated
by dancer-puppeteers. See also Asian Theater.
| E | Libraries and Museums |
Thailand’s three major libraries are the
National Library, the library of the Siam Society (a preeminent research and
scholarly organization), and the Neilson-Hays Library. All three are located in
Bangkok and contain extensive collections on Southeast Asian culture.
The National Museum in Bangkok and its
branches in cities throughout the country have collections representing Thai
culture from the prehistoric period onwards. The branch in Bangkok occupies a
group of buildings, some of which were formerly part of a royal palace. It
includes artifacts from the ancient Thai capitals as well as modern crafts.
Several traditional Thai teakwood houses
are now public museums. The Kamthieng House, originally from northern Thailand,
is now located at the Siam Society. The Suan Pakkad Palace includes several
traditional houses and a number of art collections. Vimanmek, the world’s
largest golden teakwood mansion, was built during the reign (1868-1910) of King
Chulalongkorn (Rama V). And the Jim Thompson House, former home of an American
who contributed substantially to the development of the Thai silk industry after
World War II, houses collections on Thai art and archaeology.
The Culture section of this article was
contributed by Dawn F. Rooney.
| V | ECONOMY OF THAILAND |
The recent history of Thailand’s economy is
defined by more than a decade of sustained and rapid economic growth beginning
in 1985, followed by a severe recession that started in late 1997. During the
boom years, economic growth averaged more than 7 percent annually, one of the
highest rates in the world. The crisis of 1997 and 1998 wiped out some of the
gains of the boom and forced major adjustments in Thai industry and economic
policy.
Many different factors contributed to the
rapid growth of Thailand’s economy. Low wages, policy reforms that opened the
economy more to trade, and careful economic management resulted in low inflation
and a stable exchange rate. These factors encouraged domestic savings and
investment and made the Thai economy an ideal host for foreign investment.
Foreign and domestic investment caused manufacturing to grow rapidly, especially
in labor-intensive, export-oriented industries, such as those producing
clothing, footwear, electronics, and consumer appliances. These industries also
benefited from a tremendous expansion in world trade during the 1980s. As
industry expanded, many Thai people who previously had worked in agriculture
began to work in manufacturing, slowing growth in the agriculture sector.
Meanwhile, manufacturing growth spurred the expansion of service sector
activities.
By 2006 Thailand’s per capita income reached
$3,050, making it an upper-middle income developing economy. Although Thailand
was technically still a poor country, spectacular income gains enjoyed by the
urban middle class made the country one of the world’s large markets for luxury
cars and other expensive consumer goods. However, by Asian standards the gains
of growth were not distributed equally among the Thai population: between 1981
and 1994 the incomes of the richest 20 percent of the population grew
significantly in comparison to those of the poorest 20 percent. Nevertheless,
nearly all Thai benefited in some fashion from growth. The percentage of the
population living in poverty fell from 23 percent in 1981 to less than 10
percent in 1994.
In the early 1990s a series of economic
policy reforms introduced by the Thai government made it easy and attractive for
foreign banks to offer loans to Thai banks. The Thai banks used the capital to
lend money to domestic finance companies, property developers, and other
investors, stimulating an investment boom. In an atmosphere of great optimism
about continued rapid growth, the resulting investment boom created a “bubble
economy” based on speculation in urban property and stocks. The bubble burst in
1996 and 1997, when stock and property prices declined steeply. As speculators
in these sectors failed to repay loans, many Thai banks became unable to service
their foreign debt, causing investor confidence to fall sharply. The consequent
outflow of capital caused the Thai banking system to crash in mid-1997. The
resulting credit shortage drove many companies into bankruptcy and created a
large pool of unemployed workers. Thailand’s economy remained deep in recession
through 1998, with gross domestic product (GDP) shrinking an estimated 8.5
percent that year. In the early 2000s Thailand made a full economic recovery,
driven by strong growth in exports.
| A | Role of Government |
Thai governments, including unelected
military regimes, have in general worked to ensure price stability while
promoting economic growth. Other than in some key infrastructure and energy
sectors, the government has not made extensive use of direct interventions in
the market. Instead, it prefers to exert influence through indirect measures,
such as investment incentives and taxes on trade.
| B | Labor |
The Thai labor force totaled 36.5 million
workers in 2006. Although agriculture’s share in national income is now very
small, official statistics indicate that 43 percent of the labor force is still
employed in that sector, with 20 percent in industry and 37 percent in services.
These statistics are likely to overstate agriculture’s true share of the labor
force, as many rural Thai engage in seasonal migration, working in cities for
part of the year and returning to the countryside during peak demand periods in
agriculture, such as the rice harvest. Within industry, most employment is with
small firms (those with less than 50 employees). Less than 10 percent of the
labor force is unionized, although that figure rises to more than 20 percent in
larger firms of 50 or more employees.
The economic boom of 1985 to 1996 caused
massive growth in total employment, especially of unskilled and semiskilled
workers. From 1990 to 1996, real wages (adjusted for inflation) rose by about 10
percent per year. The employment boom drew many Thai from rural areas to urban
centers and resulted in a large influx of illegal immigrants from poorer
neighboring countries, such as Laos and Myanmar.
Following the 1997 collapse of Thailand’s
economy, unemployment and underemployment became serious problems, with the
former peaking at nearly 3 million jobless in mid-1998. Some of the unemployed
returned to rural areas, but many more remained in the cities in the hope that
jobs would become available again once the economy recovered.
A longer-term issue for the Thai economy
is the prevailing low educational attainment of Thai workers, as compared to
their counterparts in other middle-income developing economies. Although the
literacy rate is high, official figures show that only 56 percent of children of
high school age are enrolled in high school.
| C | Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing |
Agriculture was traditionally the mainstay
of the Thai economy. However, along with the remarkable acceleration of economic
growth in the 1980s came rapid changes in the country’s economic structure.
While agricultural production increased, the economic contributions of industry
and services grew faster, which decreased the relative importance of farming.
Agriculture’s share of GDP fell from 23 percent in 1980 to 11 percent in 1996 as
Thailand moved into the ranks of the so-called newly industrializing
economies.
Thailand has 18 million hectares (44
million acres) of land under cultivation. Of this total, about 5 million
hectares (12 million acres) of irrigated land produce most of the country’s
major crop, rice. Other important crops include sugarcane, natural rubber, corn,
soybeans, coconuts, and other tropical fruits. Agricultural exports, especially
of rice, were the basis for most of Thailand’s early trade. The country is still
a major exporter of rice, but its agricultural trade has diversified to include
rubber, cassava, fruits, flowers, and many other products.
Much of the expansion of agriculture has
taken place at the expense of forest cover, which is disappearing at a rate of
0.6 percent per year. The timber harvest in 2006 was 28 million cubic meters (1
billion cubic feet), nearly all of which was burned for fuel. Following severe
flood damage caused by deforestation, the Thai government banned all commercial
logging in 1989. Formerly an exporter of tropical hardwoods, Thailand now
imports much of its timber from neighboring countries.
Fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand and the
Andaman Sea, along with inland and coastal fish farms, yielded 3.7 million
metric tons of fish and shellfish in 2005, up from 1.8 million metric tons in
1980. Thailand is one of the world’s leading exporters of fish and seafood
products, especially farmed shrimp.
The rapid growth of agriculture and
fisheries has raised concerns about the long-term sustainability of these
industries. Urbanization and the spread of irrigation have generated water
shortages and spawned conflicts over water use. In dryland agriculture (farming
in dry areas using methods other than irrigation), intensive cultivation has led
to soil erosion and land degradation, which in turn have required farmers to
increase fertilizer use in order to maintain yields. Mangrove swamps and other
coastal ecosystems have been severely depleted to create fisheries, and the
rapid expansion of the commercial ocean fishing fleet has reduced catches. These
natural resource management issues pose major policy problems for current and
future Thai governments.
| D | Mining |
Thailand is not richly endowed in mineral
resources. Chief mineral products include lignite (a form of coal), zinc ore,
lead concentrates, tin, gypsum, and iron ore. However, supplies of most minerals
are insufficient to satisfy the growing domestic demand. An exception is
gemstones, which form the basis of an export-oriented jewelry industry.
| E | Manufacturing |
Manufacturing has led Thailand's economic
growth. Manufacturing output grew at 10 percent annually during the 1980s and
early 1990s, much faster than the economy as a whole. As a result, the
manufacturing share of GDP rose from 22 percent in 1980 to 35 percent in 2006.
While all industries grew, expansion was most rapid among manufacturers of
labor-intensive products, such as clothing, footwear, and consumer appliances.
Industrial production diversified considerably, spurred by foreign investment,
new technologies, and the growth of domestic and export markets. Major
industries include food processing, textiles and clothing, electronics, motor
vehicles and parts, cement, petroleum, plastics, and chemical products.
| F | Services and Tourism |
Thailand’s rapid growth transformed the
services sector. This sector, which includes housing, restaurant and hotel
services, personal services, wholesale and retail trade, and many other related
activities, grew very quickly in response to increased demand, especially from
the expanding urban population in and around Bangkok. The service share of GDP
was 45 percent in 2006. The sector has shifted from low-skilled jobs to formal,
high-skilled jobs in banking, finance, management, and trade.
Tourism is a major industry within
Thailand’s services sector, with 13.9 million tourists visiting the country in
2006. Revenues from tourism make up the largest single component of Thailand’s
export earnings. Popular tourist destinations include Bangkok and the country’s
beach resorts.
| G | Energy |
In 2003 Thailand produced 114.7 billion
kilowatt-hours (kwh) of electricity, up from about 3 billion kwh in 1968. Of
this, 92 percent was produced by generating plants powered by oil, gas, and
coal. Thailand is heavily dependent on imported fossil fuels and electricity to
meet its energy demands. The country imports electricity from hydroelectric
plants in neighboring Laos, and natural gas along a pipeline from Myanmar.
| H | Transportation |
Thailand has an extensive network of inland
waterways, based on the Chao Phraya River and linking the agricultural heartland
of central Thailand to Klong Toey Port in Bangkok. These waterways provided the
major mode of transport until just a few decades ago and are still widely used
to ship bulky products, such as rice and oil. Ferries on Bangkok’s extensive
system of canals (khlongs) serve thousands of commuters every day.
Thailand’s railway system, established a
century ago, consists of 4,071 km (2,530 mi) of track. It links Bangkok to the
northern city of Chiang Mai as well as to the country’s western, northeastern,
and southern extremities. The country has 57,400 km (35,700 mi) of roads and
highways. Major improvements to the road system, begun in the 1970s, have
brought all but the most remote communities within relatively easy reach of
markets and services.
In September 2006 the Suvarnabhumi Airport
opened in Bangkok to replace the overloaded Don Muang International Airport. The
new international airport ranked as one of the largest in Asia. Smaller domestic
airports are located throughout the country.
| I | Communications |
Thailand has a thriving newspaper industry,
in large part due to the 1991 repeal of a press censorship law. Network
television is largely controlled by corporations owned either by the government
or by institutions such as the military. Satellite technology has helped
television reach almost every town and village. In 1997 Thailand had 234 radio
receivers and 281 television sets for every 1,000 residents. Although there are
only 110 fixed telephone lines per 1,000 people, the rapid spread of cellular
telephones has facilitated personal communications in all parts of the country.
In 2004 there were 430 mobile phones per 1,000 people. That year there were 58
personal computers per 1,000 people.
| J | Foreign Trade |
Thailand’s economy is closely linked to
world markets through trade, as well as through investment and other capital
flows. The composition of trade has shifted dramatically toward manufactures;
between 1980 and 2003 manufactures as a percentage of total exports increased
from 25 percent to 75 percent. In 2003 Thailand’s exports earned $80.3 billion,
while the cost of imports totaled $75.8 billion.
Thailand’s economy is highly vulnerable to
fluctuations in world prices of its major imports, such as oil. On the other
hand, it has successfully taken advantage of growth in world demand for many of
its exports, including seafood products, clothing and textiles, and electronics.
The United States and Japan are Thailand’s largest trading partners. The
establishment of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade
Area in 2002 substantially increased Thailand’s trade with other Asian
economies.
| K | Currency, Banking, and Foreign Capital Flows |
Thailand’s basic unit of currency is the
baht. The central bank is the Bank of Thailand (established in 1942),
which issues the currency. Until 1997 the Thai banking system combined private
and publicly owned banks, with limited participation by foreign banks.
In the late 1980s economic policy reforms
greatly facilitated foreign purchases of Thai stocks and bonds as well as
international borrowing by Thai banks. Whereas private foreign capital flows had
previously consisted mainly of direct investments in factories and equipment, by
the early 1990s the major source of foreign capital was short-term loans to Thai
banks. The boom in capital inflows placed great stresses not only on the private
banking system (to which most foreign loans flowed) but also on the capacity of
the Bank of Thailand to monitor and regulate the financial sector. These
institutional weaknesses formed fault lines along which the Thai financial
economy fragmented when capital inflows abruptly reversed in 1997.
Beginning in the mid-1980s the baht’s
exchange rate with the United States dollar was fixed at approximately 25 baht
to U.S.$1. However, the 1997 capital outflow forced the abandonment of the fixed
rate. Allowed to float, the baht fell as low as 60 to the dollar before
stabilizing at around 36 by late 1998. The 1997 crisis also led to a number of
reforms in banking and finance. Restrictions on foreign ownership of Thai banks,
property, and corporations were relaxed, and measures were passed to improve the
structure of the banking sector and the transparency and efficiency of financial
transactions.
The Economy section of this article was
contributed by Ian Coxhead.
| VI | GOVERNMENT OF THAILAND |
Thailand was ruled by an absolute monarchy
from 1782 until 1932, when a small group of rebels seized control of the country
and persuaded the king to accept the introduction of a constitutional monarchy.
The country’s first constitution called for a government headed by a legislature
(the National Assembly), with the king maintaining an advisory role as head of
state. When the king sought to dissolve the new legislature the following year,
the army moved to prevent him, thus becoming the dominant political force in the
country. For most of the next half century, Thailand was under the control of
various military governments.
In 1997 Thailand’s 16th constitution took
effect. It was the country’s first constitution to be drafted by a process
involving public debate, and the first to include a bill of rights guaranteeing
equality and basic human rights to all citizens. The constitution was intended
to move the center of power away from the military and bureaucracy and toward
the elected members of the legislature. It contained guarantees for social
welfare and environmental protection and required the government to report its
activities. Following a military coup in September 2006, the 1997 constitution
was rescinded. The military government drafted a new constitution, which voters
approved by referendum in August 2007.
Thailand is a unitary state, in which the
authority of the central government is superior to that of the country’s
provincial and municipal governments. However, in recent years pressure has
increased for more devolution of power to the provinces and municipalities. All
citizens age 18 and older are eligible to vote.
| A | Executive |
The king is Thailand’s head of state and
the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Although the king has little direct
power, he may exercise considerable influence on political leaders and moral
influence on society as a whole. Since 1946 the king of Thailand has been
Bhumibol Adulyadej, or Rama IX.
The country’s chief executive official is
the prime minister. The prime minister is designated from among the members of
the House of Representatives and is usually the leader of the dominant party
following elections. The king formally appoints the prime minister. The prime
minister heads the cabinet, which consists of no more than 35 members. Under the
2007 constitution the prime minister is limited to two four-year terms in
office.
| B | Legislature |
Legislative power in Thailand is vested
in a bicameral (two-chamber) National Assembly (Ratha Sapha), consisting
of a House of Representatives (Sapha Poothaen Rassadorn) and a Senate
(Woothi Sapha). The House of Representatives has 480 members; 400 of them
are elected from single-member constituencies (geographical areas that each have
one representative) and the remaining 80 are elected through a party-list
system. House members are elected to four-year terms, but these terms can be cut
short if the king decides to dissolve the legislature and call for new
elections. The Senate has 150 members, 76 of whom are directly elected from
districts corresponding to Thailand’s provinces and 74 of whom are selected by a
committee. Most provinces have a single representative in the Senate, but the
larger ones have additional representatives. The elected members of the Senate
serve six-year terms, and the appointed senators serve three-year terms.
| C | Judiciary |
Thai citizens are guaranteed due process
and equal justice under the law. At the top of the court system is the San Dika
(Supreme Court), located in Bangkok. It serves as a court of final appeal in all
civil, criminal, and bankruptcy cases. Below the San Dika is the San Uthon
(Court of Appeal), which has appellate jurisdiction in all cases. Courts of
first instance include magistrates’ courts, provincial courts, and courts with
exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok and its immediate environs. The 1997
constitution recognized, and increased the independence of, the judiciary. As
part of the country’s reforms to enhance the rights and freedoms of the Thai
people, a royal decree created the 15-member Constitutional Court in 1998. This
court makes final and binding decisions in cases involving constitutional
issues, and it may recommend amendments to the constitution.
| D | Local Government |
Thailand is divided into 76 provinces
(changwat), each headed by a governor. Except for the governor of
Bangkok, who is elected by popular vote, the provincial governors are appointed
by the minister of the interior. The provinces are divided into 744 districts
(amphoe), headed by appointed district officers. Municipalities are
governed by elected and appointed officials, while elected heads hold power at
the village level.
| E | Political Parties |
Thailand’s political parties were
severely restricted for several decades following the 1932 change of government
but have multiplied since that time. Many parties serve as the personal
political machines of individuals or small groups, and few represent defined
ideologies. The populist Thai Rak Thai (Thais Love Thais) Party, founded in 1998
by businessman (later prime minister) Thaksin Shinawatra, was ordered to be
disbanded by the Constitutional Court in May 2007 for breaking electoral laws in
the April 2006 election campaign for parliament. Former members of the Thai Rak
Thai party regrouped to form the new People’s Power Party (PPP), which won the
2007 elections. Other prominent parties include the Prachatipat (Democrat)
Party, founded in 1945 as a royalist party, and the Chart Thai (Thai Nation)
Party of former prime minister Banharn Silpa-archa.
| F | Social Services |
Thailand has an extensive network of
public health facilities down to at least the district level, and an expansion
of medical education has increased the number of doctors. The average life
expectancy in Thailand (72.8 years as of 2008) is high by world standards. Basic
medical care is heavily subsidized by the government. Medical services have been
strained by the spread of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes the disease. The World Health
Organization estimated that the number of HIV-infected people in Thailand was
about 560,000 in 2005, with 236,000 new cases reported annually. The country’s
AIDS-prevention campaign, launched in 1991, was among the first in Southeast
Asia. Thailand does not have unemployment insurance, disability provisions, or
retirement benefits.
| G | Defense |
Military service is compulsory for two
years for all able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 30. In 2004 the armed
forces included an army of 190,000 members, a navy of 70,600, and an air force
of 46,000. Beginning in the early 1990s, the proportion of GDP spent on the
military was reduced substantially. In 2003 military expenditures totaled 1.3
percent of GDP.
| H | International Organizations |
Thailand joined the United Nations (UN)
in 1946 and has been an active member of the organization. The country also
belongs to a number of UN agencies, including the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank),
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Thailand is a member of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which plays a central role in the country’s
foreign policy. Thailand became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
in 1995.
The Government section of this article
was contributed by David K. Wyatt.
| VII | HISTORY OF THAILAND |
Although Thailand only recently took its
current name and assumed its present-day borders, its history extends back many
thousands of years. One of the pervasive themes of the country’s history has
been the ability of its inhabitants to adapt to, and accommodate, the changes
that have constantly surrounded them.
| A | Early History |
It is natural to think that the history
of Thailand is the history of the Thai people, but in fact it is much more than
that. The Thai were relative latecomers on the scene, becoming the majority of
the region’s population only 700 or 800 years ago. The lands now included in
Thailand have been inhabited for 4,000 or 5,000 years. Even long ago, people of
the region were adept at adopting new technologies and absorbing new
populations.
The society and economy of Thailand’s
earliest inhabitants, in prehistoric times, went through a long evolution. As is
demonstrated by archaeological discoveries at Ban Chiang and other sites, these
early peoples were among the first in the world to make and use bronze tools and
weapons, to which they later added iron. They domesticated pigs and chickens,
cultivated rice and caught fish, and produced fabrics from bark and fibrous
plants. They lived in small villages scattered over a broad area.
In early historic times, the peoples
living in what is now central Thailand probably spoke Mon-Khmer languages (a
group of languages of the Austro-Asiatic language family) and were absorbed into
a number of local states that developed in the area. Especially between the 6th
and 9th centuries, the kingdom of Dvaravati dominated the central plain of the
Chao Phraya River system and the Khorat Plateau to its east. The most enduring
legacy of this period was Theravada Buddhism, which was strongly influenced by
the Buddhism of Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). Many of the region’s inhabitants
embraced Buddhism. Many also were exposed regularly to foreign trade by traders
passing through the region when traveling between China and India by sea.
Between the 9th and 13th centuries the
central plain and the Khorat Plateau were incorporated into the Khmer
(Cambodian) kingdom of Angkor, centered on the ancient city of Angkor in what is
now western Cambodia. This added a Khmer element to a population that already
included indigenous and Dvaravati elements.
The Thai people began to incorporate
themselves into this mixture of peoples from the 10th or 11th century onwards.
The Thai had been moving steadily southwestward from the border region between
Vietnam and China, usually occupying the mountainous areas between major lowland
states. They may have founded tiny upland principalities in the upper Mekong
River region near present-day Chiang Saen as early as the 7th century. However,
only in the early 13th century did they suddenly burst upon the scene in the
Dvaravati and Angkor domains.
| B | Sukhothai and Ayutthaya |
Beginning in about 1220 a number of
states, most of them Buddhist, arose in the region. In general, the southernmost
states tended to assimilate the broadest range of cultures and languages, while
those to the north tended to be more heavily Thai. By the end of the 1200s the
most important such states were Sukhothai, Phayao, Chiang Mai, and Nakhon Si
Thammarat. Of these, Sukhothai was the largest. Under King Ramkhamhaeng, who
ruled in the late 1200s, Sukhothai prospered, gaining tributary territories that
extended the kingdom’s territory to the Andaman Sea to the west, into
present-day Laos to the east, and to the southern Malay Peninsula to the south.
The acquisitions were opposed by the kingdom of Angkor, whose western outpost at
Lopburi (the preeminent Khmer city of the central plain) contested control of
the Chao Phraya valley and seaborne international trade.
The Thai people continued moving
southward onto the central plain. This movement brought about the establishment
of a new center of Thai power, the kingdom of Ayutthaya, founded by King
Ramathibodi I in 1351. Ayutthaya was on an island in the Chao Phraya, located at
a point reachable by seagoing vessels. Thus the kingdom was visited regularly by
trading ships from Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, China, India, and Persia.
International trade was a significant source of Ayutthaya’s strength, but so was
its relative cosmopolitanism—the fact that its people were so varied and their
skills and outlooks so diverse.
The first century of Ayutthaya’s
existence was filled with warfare, which culminated in its defeat of its main
rivals, Angkor (in 1434) and Sukhothai (in 1438). When Ayutthaya’s next ruler,
King Borommatrailokanat, or Trailok, came to the throne in 1448, he focused his
efforts on reforming the kingdom’s laws and strengthening his administration.
Trailok also extended the wars of conquest farther afield, beginning a long
series of wars with the kingdom of Lan Na, centered on Chiang Mai in the far
north.
The Burmese kingdom (present-day
Myanmar) conquered Ayutthaya in 1569 after virtually annexing Lan Na in 1558,
inaugurating a period of warfare that persisted throughout the century.
Ayutthaya did not reestablish its independence until the 1590s, under the great
warrior king Naresuan. Naresuan and subsequent kings worked to strengthen the
state by further developing its international trade with the Dutch East India
Company, the English East India Company, and, somewhat later, with China.
Meanwhile, Ayutthaya increasingly became known to visitors as Siam.
In the mid-1700s the Burmese monarchy
under King Alaunghpaya began another period of expansion, turning again to the
south. In 1760 Burma launched an invasion against Ayutthaya. The military effort
lasted until 1767, when the Thai capital finally fell following a two-year siege
that resulted in many deaths and widespread famine and destruction.
The Burmese might have remained to
colonize Siam, but a series of Chinese invasions of Burma forced them to beat a
hasty retreat. In the immediate aftermath of Ayutthaya’s fall, a competition
ensued for the Siamese throne. The prize fell to a former governor who came to
be known as Taksin. Taksin was an excellent general who had fled Ayutthaya to
the southeast and built up an army. After defeating his kingly rivals, he
abandoned the ruined Ayutthaya and established a new capital farther south at
Thon Buri, on the western shore of the Chao Phraya. Taksin sent his forces far
afield, south along the Malay Peninsula, east to Cambodia and Laos, and north
against Lan Na. In the last years of his reign, Taksin’s successes went to his
head. He became arbitrary and dictatorial, even requiring Buddhist monks to pay
homage to him. Such actions infuriated Taksin’s contemporaries, who deposed him
and brought to the throne his chief general, known as the Chakri (in reference
to his function) or as Chaophraya Mahakasatsuk (his title, meaning “Great King
of Warfare”). This marked the beginning of the Chakri dynasty, which continues
to rule the Thai state.
| C | Early Years of the Chakri Dynasty |
The Chakri took the throne as King Rama
I (Phraphutthayotfa) in 1782. It was natural that at a time of ongoing, bitter
warfare with Burma, an exceptionally able general should have been chosen as
king. However, Rama I was much more than that. He was highly intelligent and a
natural leader. He also was related by blood or marriage to all the leading
families of the kingdom and thus had strong connections with Thai trading
interests, including China and India.
The new king moved the capital across
the river to the eastern shore because the main Burmese military threat to the
Thai came from the west. The new capital came to bear the name of the village it
supplanted (Bang Kok, or Bangkok), although the Thai state continued to be known
abroad as Siam.
Rama I was not free of the Burmese
threat until 1805; nevertheless, he devoted effort to laying the foundations for
a modern kingdom. He undertook fundamental legal and administrative reforms as
well as extensive cultural, religious, and artistic activities. When his son
succeeded him as King Rama II (Phraphutthaloetla) in 1809, the Thai kingdom was
stronger and more extensive than ever, encompassing all of present-day Laos as
well as portions of northeastern Burma, western Cambodia, and the northern Malay
Peninsula.
Rama II died in 1824, and one of his
sons succeeded him as King Rama III (Nangklao). By this time, the world seemed a
more threatening place to the Thai. The British were beginning their colonial
involvement in the Malay Peninsula and entering into war with Burma. Rama III
faced increasing pressure from the British to open up Siam’s trade. Following
the British victory over Burma in 1826, the Thai government agreed to sign a
treaty with Britain that allowed British merchants some trade concessions in
Siam. The Thai signed a similar treaty with the United States in 1833.
In the 1830s and 1840s Siam went to war
with the Vietnamese over Cambodia and Laos, emerging with its dominant position
grudgingly recognized. As the end of Rama III’s reign approached around 1850,
Siam faced a renewed threat from the West. Both Britain and the United States
sent missions to Siam demanding free trade, extraterritorial rights (which
allowed the people of these foreign nations to live in Siam under the laws of
their own countries), and other reforms. The royal court refused the demands
quietly, explaining that progressives in the Thai government could not afford to
appear too lenient with the West. However, the foreigners were encouraged to
return once the progressives had managed the accession of a new king who would
be more receptive to concessions.
| D | Colonialism Averted |
The new monarch was King Mongkut (Rama
IV), the younger son of Rama II, who assumed the throne in 1851. Mongkut had
spent 27 years as a Buddhist monk and had used the time in intellectual
pursuits, learning Western languages and science. He was well acquainted with
the few British and Americans in Bangkok and had much more experience of the
lives of common people than had any of his predecessors. Mongkut and his son
Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who reigned from 1868 to 1910, are given much credit for
Siam’s conciliation of the West during the next half-century. While this is
justified, much credit also is due to their ministers. Together they blunted the
force of Western imperialism, which swept over much of the rest of the world
during this period. In 1855 Siam signed the Bowring Treaty, which yielded free
trade, extraterritorial rights, and some special privileges to Britain. The
treaty served as a model for subsequent treaties with the United States, France,
Japan, and many other nations. These treaties were known as unequal treaties
because they placed Thailand in a subordinate diplomatic position. However, by
upholding these treaties, avoiding offending the imperial powers, and playing
those powers against one another, Siam managed to secure its own independence
while working to earn the respect of the West.
As modern as King Mongkut might have
been in the eyes of the West, he undertook no fundamental reforms during his
reign. Such reforms would have been bitterly resisted by Siam’s entrenched noble
and bureaucratic families. His successor, Chulalongkorn, was unable to undertake
real reform until the leading members of the old families began to retire from
public life in the 1880s.
Cambodia had come under French control
in 1863, and in 1885 France completed its conquest of Vietnam. Britain took the
last remaining portion of Burma the same year. When in 1893 Siam mounted a
resistance against French troops sent to Laos to press Vietnam’s claims there,
France sent gunboats to Bangkok. The Thai capitulated and had to yield to France
their sovereignty over Laos and also pay a large indemnity. Most of Laos then
became part of French Indochina, France’s colony in the region. France gained
additional territories in Laos and Cambodia from Siam by treaty in 1904 and
1907. In 1909 Siam ceded to Britain the four northern Malay states (Perlis,
Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu), while the British agreed to assist in
financing a Bangkok-Singapore rail line and to yield some of their
extraterritorial rights.
Meanwhile, between about 1890 and 1910
Chulalongkorn’s government launched a major administrative reform, establishing
virtually all of Siam’s modern government. The existing departments were
reorganized into twelve ministries, including ministries of war (for a new
army), justice, education, interior (for administration of the countryside), and
public works, as well as specialized departments for such things as postal
services, railroads, and hospitals. Chulalongkorn also established new, modern
schools and encouraged study abroad. The kingdom’s new administration made tax
collection possible. The government used the tax revenues to finance reforms and
to create jobs for the many modern educated people emerging from the kingdom’s
new schools.
In 1910 Chulalongkorn was succeeded by
his son Vajiravudh (Rama VI), who had been educated in England. King Vajiravudh
was an active proponent of the idea of the nation, and he popularized the idea
of sacrificing, and even dying, for Siam. In July 1917 he entered Siam in World
War I on the side of the Allies, winning for the kingdom a seat at the
Versailles peace conference. Vajiravudh hoped to gain a sympathetic hearing for
Siam’s wishes to end extraterritoriality. His strategy worked, and in the early
1920s the Western nations and Japan agreed to end their unequal treaties with
Siam as soon as Siam completed modernizing its laws and courts.
But King Vajiravudh wastefully spent the
nation’s budget on his favorites and on personal pursuits, forcing his younger
brother and successor, King Prajadhipok (Rama VII), to institute a massive
cutback of expenses. The worldwide economic slump known as the Great Depression,
which hit Siam by 1930, intensified the country’s financial troubles. Although
Prajadhipok favored modest democratization, he was overruled repeatedly by his
elderly uncles. Dissatisfaction grew within the kingdom, especially among young
Siamese educated abroad who objected to the tight political control maintained
by their country’s rulers.
| E | The Revolt of 1932 and Its Aftermath |
On June 24, 1932, a small revolutionary
group, including European-educated civilians and discontented army officers,
overthrew the absolute monarchy in a bloodless coup. The leaders of the coup and
their associates—a group that became known as the Promoters—persuaded the king
to accept the introduction of a constitutional monarchy. However, they argued
that the country was not yet ready for true democratic government and thus kept
the army in control. The Promoters were divided into leftist and rightist
factions. In 1933 Pridi Phanomyong, the most influential civilian Promoter and
an intellectual who had been influenced by French socialism, proposed an
economic plan with an emphasis on nationalization of land and elimination of
private trade. The rightist factions denounced the plan as communist. They were
supported by monarchists, who mounted a rebellion against the new regime that
year. The monarchist forces were soon overcome, and in 1935 King Prajadhipok
abdicated in favor of his young nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol. The prince was,
at the time, studying in Europe, so a regency was appointed to carry out the
functions of the monarchy until he returned.
The 1930s brought about a more strident
and assertive Thai nationalism, an increased role for the military in national
life, and a sharp decline in the role of the monarchy and of royalty in general.
By 1937 the unequal treaties and extraterritorial rights of the imperialist era
had finally been eliminated, and the Thai government obtained complete autonomy
over its internal and external affairs. During this period, public education
improved dramatically, and industrialization and urbanization grew.
In 1938 Siam came under the prime
ministership of Phibun Songkhram, a field marshal who had helped lead the revolt
of 1932. In 1939 Phibun changed the name of the country from Siam to Thailand in
an effort to popularize the idea of its leadership of all speakers of the Tai
languages, not just those inhabiting Siam’s narrow bounds. In changing the
country’s name, Phibun also wished to emphasize Thai identity and
distinctiveness against the country’s Chinese minority, which by this time
amounted to more than 10 percent of the population.
| F | World War II |
In 1940 Thailand fought a brief war with
French Indochina, which had become cut off from France as a result of World War
II. With Japanese mediation, the Thai government regained the territories in
Laos and Cambodia that had been ceded to France in 1904 and 1907. On December 8,
1941, Japanese troops landed on Thailand’s southern coast. This was around the
same time that the Japanese launched attacks on Pearl Harbor, Midway, Guam,
Manila, Hong Kong, and other sites. After tense meetings with the Japanese and
his cabinet, Phibun agreed to allow the Japanese to move their troops through
Thailand to invade and occupy the British-controlled Malay Peninsula, Singapore,
and Burma. In January 1942 Thailand declared war against Britain and the United
States. In 1943 Japan rewarded the Phibun government for its cooperation with
the Japanese by awarding Thailand part of the territory that had been
incorporated into British Burma in 1885 and the four Malay states that Siam had
been forced to cede in 1909.
Meanwhile, considerable anti-Japanese
sentiment was developing in Thailand. With aid from the United States
government, Pridi and M. R. Seni Pramoj, the wartime Thai ambassador to the
United States, organized the underground Free Thai Movement to agitate against
Japanese influence. In July 1944, as the war began to turn against Japan, Phibun
was forced from office, and Khuang Aphaiwong, a civilian, took over as prime
minister. Pridi continued to be a major power behind the scenes. When the war
suddenly ended in August 1945, M. R. Seni Pramoj returned to become prime
minister. He faced not only chaos and the disruption caused by nearly four years
of Japanese presence but also extensive demands by European nations that
threatened to turn Thailand into a Western colony. With strong American support,
Thailand successfully resisted these pressures. However, the Thai government did
restore to Britain and France the territories in Indochina, Burma, and the Malay
Peninsula that it had gained during the war. After doing so, Thailand was
admitted to the United Nations (UN) in December 1946.
In June 1946 King Ananda died under
mysterious circumstances, an event for which many irrationally blamed Pridi and
others seen as opposing the monarchy. Ananda’s younger brother succeeded to the
throne as King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), but a regency council ruled until
1951 while Bhumibol completed his studies abroad.
| G | Domestic Instability |
The Thai government faced significant
challenges in the immediate postwar period, including rampant inflation and
shortages, widespread corruption, and inexperience among civilian officials.
These conditions paved the way for a return to military rule, and in November
1947 a group of military officers seized the government. The new military regime
was presided over by Phibun as prime minister.
Phibun’s government, like the military
regimes that followed it, made close relations with the United States and other
Western nations central to its foreign policy. The government sent a small force
to assist UN forces in the Korean War in 1950 and accepted massive U.S. military
aid, which further strengthened military rule.
Thai representatives took part in the
Geneva Conference of 1954, which temporarily ended the First Indochina War
(see Geneva Accords). Later that year, Thailand became a founding member
of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), which established its
headquarters in Bangkok. This alliance formed to provide defense and economic
cooperation in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.
Increasingly shunted aside by his
military lieutenants, Phibun attempted to win popularity and legitimacy by
staging elections in 1957. However, the widespread accusations of corruption and
ballot stuffing that followed the elections served to further discredit the
government. When Phibun and his interior minister Phao Sriyanond attempted to
defend their beleaguered regime, General Sarit Thanarat, backed by considerable
popular support, staged a military coup that ended Phibun’s rule. Sarit
temporarily went abroad to seek medical attention, handing power over in early
1958 to a coalition government headed by his deputy, lieutenant-general Thanom
Kittikachorn. In October Sarit returned to stage yet another military coup. He
suspended the constitution, declared martial law, and banned all political
parties. Sarit declared his intention to carry out a new “revolution” in Thai
society, restoring authority and discipline through measures such as improved
public education and rural development.
Both Sarit and Thanom (who became prime
minister following Sarit’s death in 1963) were alarmed by growing unrest and
insurgency—mainly motivated by poverty—in rural Thailand, especially in the
impoverished northeast and the south. Even more worrisome to them was the
decline of pro-Western regimes in Cambodia and Laos, territories the Thai
military considered natural wards of Thailand. The military believed these
territories had to be saved from the Communism that was threatening to overcome
Indochina with the Vietnam War, which had begun in 1959. This war pitted the
Communist North Vietnamese and the National Liberation Front (a Vietnamese
nationalist group based in South Vietnam) against the South Vietnamese, who were
eventually assisted by the United States.
| H | The Vietnam War |
During the 1960s Thailand increasingly
was drawn into the conflict in Indochina. The Thai government sent a military
contingent to fight in South Vietnam, lent considerable covert military support
to right-wing forces in Laos, and established Thailand as a major air power
base. Numerous military bases were built in Thailand to house U.S. military
contingents. New roads, improved railroad service, and telecommunications linked
the bases. All of Thailand, but especially Bangkok, benefited economically from
the heightened activity the war produced.
Thailand’s increasing involvement in
Indochina stimulated Vietnamese and Chinese Communists to support rebellion
among rural Thai, which engulfed most of Thailand’s outer provinces in the
1960s. As direct American involvement in Vietnam began to diminish beginning in
about 1969, Thailand was left with considerable involvement in Indochina
(especially in Laos) as well as persistent internal problems.
| I | Struggle for Democracy |
As a result of improved education and
heightened prosperity among the Thai people, as well as frustration with
governmental corruption and inefficiency, the country’s military rulers came
under increasing political pressure by the late 1960s. Thanom’s government took
gradual steps to restore the political rights suspended in 1958. Elections to
municipal councils were held for the first time in a decade in 1967, and a new
constitution was promulgated in 1968. In 1969 Thailand held legislative
elections. The United Thai People’s Party won a plurality of 75 seats in the
House of Representatives, while the largest opposition group, the Democrat
Party, won 56 seats.
As the United States gradually decreased
its military involvement in Vietnam and moved to establish friendly relations
with Communist China, Thailand sought to establish a more flexible foreign
policy, especially toward China and North Vietnam. Meanwhile, the United States
withdrew from Southeast Asia, contributing to a decline of the Thai economy, and
opposition to Thanom’s government increased in the outer provinces and in
Bangkok. The government responded by reestablishing military rule in 1971,
abolishing the constitution, and dissolving the legislature.
In 1973 a series of student-led
demonstrations against the military government resulted in Thanom’s resignation
and the appointment of a civilian cabinet. A new constitution was approved in
late 1974, and a new government was freely elected in early 1975. Stability
remained elusive, however, and elections in 1976 made little difference.
Thailand became deeply polarized between liberals and conservatives, especially
after Communist regimes took power throughout Indochina in 1975 and the monarchy
was abolished in Laos. When Thanom returned from exile abroad in mid-1976,
demonstrations grew into bloody battles on the streets of Bangkok between
leftist students and Thanom’s right-wing supporters. In October the Thai
military and police launched a bloody assault on students demonstrating at
Thammasat University. As disorder spread, a military group led by Admiral
Sa-ngad Chaloryu seized control of the country and installed a civilian and
former Supreme Court judge, Thanin Kraivixien, as head of a conservative
government.
Thanin’s government proved to be more
authoritarian than even the most repressive of the country’s military regimes.
In October 1977 he was overthrown by Sa-ngad and his group and replaced by
General Kriangsak Chomanand. The many students who had fled Bangkok slowly began
drifting back to a society that was slowly righting itself.
The military maintained tight reins on
the government until a new constitution was promulgated (December 1978),
elections were held (April 1979), and military leaders were sufficiently
satisfied with the new order. The military then allowed the installation of a
new cabinet headed by General Prem Tinsulanonda as prime minister. Elections in
1983 confirmed Prem as head of a new coalition government, and he was reelected
in 1986. General Chatichai Choonhavan replaced Prem following elections in 1988,
but in 1991 the military overthrew Chatichai and installed their own interim
coalition government. When the military manipulated 1992 elections to guarantee
a victory, demonstrations broke out in Bangkok calling for democratic reforms.
The protests were violently suppressed. Thailand’s king then intervened, ending
military rule and installing another interim prime minister, Anand Panyarachun.
| J | Civilian Governments |
In September 1992 new elections brought
a genuinely civilian government to power under prime minister Chuan Leekpai,
leader of the Prachatipat (Democrat) Party. Chuan began the process of writing
an entirely new and more democratic constitution for Thailand, which was
completed in 1997. He also presided over a period of economic boom during which
Thailand experienced one of the highest economic growth rates in the world.
Chuan’s government collapsed in 1995
following accusations of corruption. He was succeeded by Banharn Silpa-archa,
leader of the Chart Thai (Thai Nation) Party. However, Banharn’s government was
soon accused of corruption and other wrongdoing, and he resigned from office in
1996. Chavalit Yongchaiyudh’s New Aspiration Party won September 1996 elections,
and Chavalit became the new prime minister.
In mid-1997 Thailand’s economy
experienced a significant setback as the Thai currency fell sharply against the
U.S. dollar. Many businesses and financial institutions failed, and unemployment
rose sharply. The crisis then spread, affecting the economies of other Asian
nations. To control and contain the situation, the International Monetary Fund
stepped in with a package of loans, in return for which Thailand accepted
measures intended to restore its economy to health. By late 1998 the exchange
rate had improved.
Thailand’s economic crisis spawned a
number of related problems, including urban unemployment, a widening gap between
rich and poor, and a decline in social services. The crisis made it difficult
for the government to fund adequate educational reform and to care for the
country’s considerable population of AIDS and HIV patients. A test of Thailand’s
strength in the years to come will be its ability to restore its own
self-confidence and surmount these and other challenges.
In November 1997, meanwhile, Chavalit
resigned as prime minister in the face of criticism for his economic policies.
Chuan Leekpai was appointed to the post a second time. The January 2001 general
elections were the first to be held under the reformist 1997 constitution, which
created the Election Commission to monitor elections for vote fraud. The Thai
Rak Thai (Thais Love Thais) Party of telecommunications tycoon Thaksin
Shinawatra won by a landslide on a populist platform, promising economic
initiatives to benefit small businesses and farmers. Thai Rak Thai entered a
three-party coalition controlling 325 of 500 seats in the House of
Representatives, and Thaksin secured a parliamentary mandate to become prime
minister. His party then merged with the New Aspiration Party (NAP) and the
Seritham (Liberal Democratic) Party to gain 50 additional seats, making it the
first governing party in the country’s history to secure a simple majority.
Thai Rak Thai won another landslide
victory in the February 2005 parliamentary elections, taking 377 seats. Forming
the relatively powerless political opposition in the legislature were the
Democrat Party, with 96 seats; the Chart Thai party, with 25 seats; and the
Mahachon Party, with 2 seats. Thaksin was appointed to a second term as prime
minister and formed Thailand’s first democratically elected single-party
government.
| K | Tsunami Disaster of 2004 |
On December 26, 2004, the world’s most
powerful earthquake in 40 years struck deep under the Indian Ocean. The
magnitude 9.0 earthquake was centered off the northwestern coast of the
Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake triggered a tsunami (massive
waves), which crashed into the coasts of 14 countries from Southeast Asia to the
eastern coast of Africa. The western coast of Thailand, about 480 km (about 300
mi) from the quake’s epicenter, was hit by huge wave surges within two hours.
Thailand’s many offshore islands, such as the popular tourist resorts of Ko
Phuket and Ko Phi Phi Le, were hit during their busy holiday season. In the
absence of a tsunami early warning system in the Indian Ocean region, coastal
communities received no warning of the impending disaster.
The tsunami was the deadliest in
recorded history. The International Committee of the Red Cross reported a death
toll of more than 250,000 people as a result of the tsunami and the earthquake.
Indonesia, nearest the epicenter of the quake, suffered the largest loss of
life. Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India reported high death tolls from the tsunami.
Thai officials estimated that about half of the more than 5,000 people known to
have died in the country were foreigners, most of them vacationers from Europe.
The tsunami destroyed entire coastal
communities in the stricken countries. Millions of survivors were left in
desperate need of food, water, shelter, and medical care. A number of countries
and international humanitarian organizations responded to the widespread
devastation with one of the largest relief efforts in modern history.
| L | Military Coup |
Thailand entered a period of political
crisis in early 2006. After the Thaksin family sold a 49.6 percent stake in the
telecommunications firm that it controlled, opposition forces renewed charges
that Thaksin had used his political position to bolster his fortune. In response
to charges of corruption and abuse of power, Thaksin dissolved parliament and
called for new elections to win a show of confidence.
Three opposition parties boycotted the
April election, which Thaksin’s Thai Rak Thai Party won with more than 50
percent of the vote. The large protest vote combined with the opposition boycott
led Thaksin to announce his resignation the day after the election. He handed
over power to a deputy prime minister, the April elections were annulled, and
new elections were scheduled. Thaksin returned to work as caretaker prime
minister in May. In September, while Thaksin was out of the country attending a
session of the UN General Assembly in New York City, a military coup was staged.
A “Democratic Reform Council” was formed, headed by General Sonthi
Boonyaratkalin, leader of the coup. The 1997 constitution was rescinded, and the
council appointed retired army chief General Surayud Chulanont as interim prime
minister until new elections could be held.
In May 2007 the Constitutional Court
ruled that Thai Rak Thai had violated electoral laws in the April 2006 election
and ordered that the party be disbanded. Earlier the court had acquitted the
Democrat Party, finding that it had not violated election laws. In disbanding
Thai Rak Thai, the court also ruled that more than 100 Thai Rak Thai officials,
including Thaksin, could not participate in politics for five years. That would
prevent them from running in elections that the military government promised to
hold by the end of 2007.
The military leaders made the holding of
elections contingent on the approval of a new constitution, which they claimed
was needed to curb executive power. In August 2007 nearly 58 percent of voters
approved a referendum on a new constitution drafted by a military-appointed
panel. Among other changes from the 1997 constitution, the new charter imposed a
two-term limit on future prime ministers and made it easier to impeach
them.
Elections to choose a new civilian
government were held as promised in December 2007. The People’s Power Party
(PPP), a new party formed by former members of the dissolved Thai Rak Thai, won
the largest share of the vote and formed a governing coalition with five smaller
parties. PPP leader Samak Sundaravej, a veteran politician and supporter of
Thaksin, became the new prime minister of Thailand.
The History section of this article was
contributed by David K. Wyatt.
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