I | INTRODUCTION |
Kyrgyzstan, officially Kyrgyz Republic (Kyrgyz
Kyrgyz Respublikasy), landlocked republic in the eastern part of Central
Asia that is bordered on the north by Kazakhstan, on the east by China, on the
south by China and Tajikistan, and on the west by Uzbekistan. Bishkek is the
capital and largest city.
The Kyrgyz, a Muslim people who speak a Turkic
language that is also called Kyrgyz, constitute a majority of the population of
Kyrgyzstan. Uzbeks and Russians form the largest ethnic minorities. Kyrgyzstan
became part of the Russian Empire in the late 1800s. In 1924 it became an
autonomous region of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), and in 1936
its status was upgraded to make it one of the 15 constituent republics of the
USSR. Officially known as the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR), it was
also commonly known as Kirgizia. Kyrgyzstan became an independent nation in
1991. In 1993 the country ratified its first post-Soviet constitution.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES OF KYRGYZSTAN |
The total area of Kyrgyzstan is 198,500 sq km
(76,640 sq mi). The country is almost completely mountainous. More than half of
Kyrgyzstan lies at an elevation higher than 2,500 m (8,200 ft), and only about
one-eighth of the country lies lower than 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Glaciers and
permanent snowfields cover more than 3 percent of Kyrgyzstan’s total land area.
An underlying seismic belt causes frequent earthquakes.
A | Mountains and Valleys |
Kyrgyzstan is located at the juncture of
two great Central Asian mountain systems (the Tian Shan and the Pamirs). These
two systems are geologically separated from each other in southern Kyrgyzstan,
between the Alai Mountains of the Tian Shan and the Trans-Alai Range (Qatorkŭhi
Pasi Oloy) of the Pamirs. The Trans-Alai Range, which is the northernmost part
of the Pamirs, forms part of Kyrgyzstan’s southern border with Tajikistan. The
main ridge of the Tian Shan extends along Kyrgyzstan’s eastern border with
China, on a northeastern axis. Victory Peak (known as Pik Pobedy in Russian and
Jenish Chokosu in Kyrgyz) is the highest peak in the Tian Shan system at an
elevation of 7,439 m (24,406 ft). Located on the Kyrgyz-China border in
northeastern Kyrgyzstan, Victory Peak is also the highest point in Kyrgyzstan
and the second highest peak in the former USSR. A series of mountain chains that
are part of the Tian Shan system, including the Alatau ranges, spur off into
Kyrgyzstan. Most of these ranges run generally east to west, but the Fergana
Mountains in the central portion of the country run southeast to northwest. The
Fergana Valley in the west and the Chu Valley in the north are among the few
significant lowland areas in Kyrgyzstan.
B | Lakes and Rivers |
The Naryn River, Kyrgyzstan’s largest
river, originates in the mountains in the northeast and flows westward through
the middle of the country. The Naryn then enters the Fergana Valley and crosses
into Uzbekistan, where it joins with another river to form the Syr Darya, one of
Central Asia’s principal rivers. The Chu River, in northern Kyrgyzstan, flows
northward into southern Kazakhstan. Ysyk-Köl, the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and
one of the largest mountain lakes in the world, is located at an altitude of
1,607 m (5,273 ft) above sea level in the northeastern portion of the
country.
C | Plants and Animals |
Forests occupy 4 percent of the country’s
land area. Coniferous trees such as the Tian Shan white spruce grow along lower
valleys and on north-facing mountain slopes. Many rare animal species inhabit
the woodlands, including the Tian Shan bear, the red wolf, and the snow leopard,
which are protected by government decree. Other animals in Kyrgyzstan include
deer, mountain goats, and mountain sheep. Kyrgyzstan’s mountain lakes are an
annual refuge for thousands of migrating birds, including the mountain goose and
other rare species.
D | Natural Resources |
Kyrgyzstan’s natural resources include
significant deposits of gold and other minerals. Also present are deposits of
coal, uranium, mercury, antimony, nepheline, bismuth, lead, and zinc.
Exploitable but small reserves of oil and natural gas also exist. The country’s
fast-flowing rivers provide hydroelectric power. Only 7 percent of the total
land area is cultivated.
E | Climate |
The country’s climate varies by region.
The climate is subtropical in the Fergana Valley and temperate in the northern
foothill zone. The lower mountain slopes have a dry continental climate, as they
receive desert-warmed winds from Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, whereas the highest
mountain elevations have a polar climate. In the valleys, the average daily
temperature in July is 28°C (82°F). In January daily averages are as low as
-14°C (7°F). Conditions are much colder at high elevations, where in July the
average daily temperature is 5°C (41°F) and in January, -28°C (-18°F).
Precipitation is from 100 to 500 mm (4 to 20 in) in the valleys and from 180 to
1,000 mm (7 to 40 in) in the mountains.
F | Environmental Issues |
The environment of Kyrgyzstan suffers from
the results of decades of ecological mismanagement. Industrial pollution is a
problem in the cities. Water pollution is also a major problem, especially in
the south, where waterborne diseases are prevalent. In agricultural areas,
excessive irrigation and unrestrained use of agricultural chemicals have
severely degraded soil quality. Overgrazing of livestock has also contributed to
soil degradation, and a significant portion of Kyrgyzstan’s available grasslands
has disappeared. Kyrgyzstan contains many abandoned uranium mines that are a
potential threat to the environment.
Severe economic constraints have prevented
the government from allocating significant funds for environmental improvements.
However, with financial support from the international community, Kyrgyzstan has
developed an environmental action plan designed to coordinate efforts to improve
the environment. The government has designated 3.6 percent of the country’s land
area protected and has ratified international environmental agreements
pertaining to biodiversity, desertification, and hazardous wastes.
III | THE PEOPLE OF KYRGYZSTAN |
Kyrgyzstan has a population (2008 estimate)
of 5,356,869, giving it an average population density of 28 persons per sq km
(73 per sq mi). The population is clustered in two principal areas: the Fergana
Valley in the southwest and the Chu Valley in the north. Only 34 percent of the
population lives in urban areas. The two largest cities are Bishkek, the
capital, located on the Chu River in the far north; and Osh, located in the
Fergana Valley.
A | Ethnic Groups |
Ethnic Kyrgyz make up about 65 percent of
the population of Kyrgyzstan. Uzbeks, who live primarily in the Fergana Valley,
constitute about 14 percent of the population. Russians, who live principally in
Bishkek and other industrial centers, make up about 13 percent of the
population. Other ethnic groups include Hui (Chinese Muslims, also known as
Dungans), Ukrainians, Uygurs (Uighurs), Tatars, Kazakhs, and Tajiks.
After Kyrgyzstan gained independence,
many Russians and some other ethnic minorities chose to leave the country,
mainly out of concern that their civil rights were not sufficiently protected in
the face of Kyrgyz nationalism. More than 200,000 Russians and 60,000 Germans
have emigrated since 1991. As a consequence, the Kyrgyz proportion of the
population has increased by more than 10 percent.
B | Languages |
Kyrgyz has been the official state
language of Kyrgyzstan since 1989. At that time only 53 percent of the
population was fluent in Kyrgyz, but within ten years 70 percent of the
population claimed fluency. Russian remained the language of interethnic
communication because of the country’s Russian and Russian-speaking minorities.
In 2000 Russian was accorded the status of an official language of the state.
Kyrgyzstan was the only former Soviet republic in Central Asia to make this
concession to its Russian minority. Like most other Central Asian languages,
Kyrgyz is a Turkic language. It was written in the Arabic script until 1928,
when the Soviet authorities mandated a switch to a modified Latin (Roman)
script. In 1940 a modified version of Cyrillic replaced the Latin script as part
of a Soviet drive to increase literacy while simultaneously promoting the script
of the Russian language. Cyrillic continues to be widely used, although the
government of Kyrgyzstan is committed to the gradual reintroduction of the Latin
script.
C | Religion |
The predominant religion in Kyrgyzstan is
Islam. The Kyrgyz and Uzbek populations, along with the country’s other Central
Asian groups, are almost all Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi School. The Muslims in
the southern regions of Kyrgyzstan are generally more devout than those in the
north. The Russian population is traditionally Orthodox Christian. Kyrgyz people
practiced ancient rituals of shamanism before their conversion to Islam, which
occurred mostly in the 19th century. During most of the Soviet period the
officially atheistic Communist regime severely restricted religious practice.
The importance of religion has increased substantially since Kyrgyzstan became
independent.
D | Education |
Kyrgyzstan has an adult literacy rate of
99.6 percent. Illiteracy was nearly abolished during the Soviet period, when the
government instituted a comprehensive system of free and universal education.
Education is compulsory for ten years, or until the age of 15. Institutes of
higher education include Kyrgyz State University, the Kyrgyz-Slavonic
University, and the Kyrgyz-American University, all located in Bishkek.
E | Culture |
Oral epics dating from ancient times are
an important cultural tradition in Kyrgyzstan and throughout Central Asia. These
epos (unwritten narrative epics based on legend) are performed to a
melody by minstrels, who the Kyrgyz call akyndar. In Kyrgyzstan the
tradition includes an entire series of epos called Manas. The narrative
revolves around a heroic archetype called Manas and his battles against hostile
hordes in order to carve out a homeland for his people. Akyndar who can recite
and improvise from the Manas epos are called manaschi. The oral tradition
waned during the Soviet period as literacy increased, but in the mid-1990s the
Manas epics were revived. They are venerated as a vital part of the
Kyrgyz literary tradition.
In the early 20th century a reformist
school of thought spread among the intelligentsia of Central Asia. One member of
this movement was Kyrgyz poet, scholar, and nationalist political leader Qasim
Tinistan-uulu. Tinistan-uulu was executed in 1934, during Soviet dictator Joseph
Stalin’s massive purges of Soviet society. Later in the Soviet period, Kyrgyz
writer Chingiz Aitmatov gained international renown, beginning with his
collection of short stories entitled Tales of Mountains and Steppes
(English translation published in 1969). His other important works include
Farewell, Gulsary! (1970), The White Ship (1972), and The Day
Lasts More Than a Hundred Years (1980). Aitmatov also cowrote the play
The Ascent of Mount Fuji (first produced in Moscow in 1973) with Kazakh
playwright Kaltay Muhamedjanov; the play delves into the moral compromises that
people had to make under Stalin. Kyrgyz writer Kazat Akmatov used fiction to
express criticism of Soviet oppression. Among his works is the novel Years
Around the Sun (1992). In the late 1980s both Aitmatov and Akmatov were
active in reformist politics; Aitmatov sought to revive interest in the Kyrgyz
language, while Akmatov was a prominent figure in the Kyrgyz movement for
democratic reforms.
Cultural institutions in Kyrgyzstan are
limited mainly to the urban centers. The Kyrgyz State Museum of Fine Art and the
State Historical Museum of Kyrgyzstan are both located in Bishkek.
F | Economy |
The breakdown of established trading
relationships following the dissolution of the USSR severely depressed the
economy of Kyrgyzstan. Markets for the country’s highly specialized industries
disappeared and the high cost of fuel imports—subsidized during the Soviet
era—drained the country’s money reserves. By 1995 the gross domestic product
(GDP), which measures the total value of goods and services, had fallen to 54
percent of its level in 1990. Beginning in the mid-1990s, however, the economy
began to reverse its decline, led by increased agricultural output and a growing
private sector. In 2006 the GDP was an estimated $2.82 billion.
Kyrgyzstan is widely seen as one of the
leaders among the former Soviet republics in economic reform. In 1992 the
government initiated the first in a series of privatization programs to bring
about the transition from the centrally planned economy of the Soviet era to a
free-market system. The initial step was to transfer the ownership of most
housing to its occupants. Industrial privatization began in 1994, and by the end
of the 1990s at least 75 percent of enterprises formerly owned by the state were
privately owned. In 2000 the government sought to reduce its stakes in its
largest assets. The state power company, gas provider, telecommunications
company, and national airline were all opened to partial private ownership.
Agricultural reform, which proceeded much more slowly, involved breaking up
state farms and collectives established during the Soviet period. The transition
to private farming has been helped by a constitutional amendment, approved by
voters in 1998, legalizing private land ownership for the first time.
Previously, farmers could lease land from the government but could not own it
outright.
G | Agriculture |
Agriculture, which in 2006 accounted for
33 percent of GDP, is Kyrgyzstan’s healthiest economic sector. The raising of
sheep and cattle remains the dominant agricultural occupation, particularly in
the central and eastern mountains. Soviet central planners demanded high meat
production from Kyrgyzstan, which forced farm managers to increase herd sizes,
resulting in extensive overgrazing. Since independence, the size of herds has
been reduced. Vegetables, particularly potatoes and tomatoes, and fruits are
grown in the irrigated and intensely cultivated Fergana Valley. Other crops
include cotton, tobacco, and sugar beets. Much of Kyrgyzstan’s grain farming
takes place in the foothills of the northern mountains.
H | Manufacturing |
Once based almost exclusively on
agriculture, the Kyrgyz economy underwent extensive industrialization during the
Soviet period. Raw materials were imported from other parts of the USSR for
processing; the resulting products were then exported to other parts of the
USSR. In the economic turmoil associated with the breakup of the USSR,
industrial production was cut nearly in half as material costs increased and
markets for finished goods disappeared. By 2006 industry contributed only 20
percent of GDP. The processing of agricultural goods such as wool, meat, and
leather accounts for much of the country’s manufacturing; other manufactured
products include textiles, clothing, and shoes. Kyrgyzstan also makes
agricultural machinery and refines metal. Most manufacturing plants are
concentrated in Bishkek and its environs.
I | Mining |
Kyrgyzstan has vast mineral resources,
including extensive deposits of gold, antimony, and mercury. The country has
entered into agreements with foreign companies to assist in developing its gold
reserves, estimated to be among the richest in the world. Antimony and mercury
refineries are the largest among the former Soviet republics. Coal mining is
significant, although production is falling because of aging equipment and
increased extraction costs. Unlike neighboring countries, Kyrgyzstan has limited
oil and natural gas reserves, although deposits have been found in the Fergana
Valley.
J | Energy |
The Naryn and Chu rivers are used for
hydroelectric power, although considerable hydroelectric potential remains
undeveloped. Some 90.46 percent of the country’s electricity is generated in
hydroelectric facilities. The remaining 9.54 percent comes from thermal plants
burning coal. Sales to China, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan make electricity
Kyrgyzstan’s principal export.
K | Currency and Trade |
Germany, Uzbekistan, Russia, Kazakhstan,
and China are Kyrgyzstan’s chief purchasers of exports. In addition to
electricity, leading export items are unprocessed agricultural products, refined
metals, and machinery. Leading sources for imports are Russia, Uzbekistan,
Kazakhstan, the United States, and China. Major imports include petroleum and
gas, machinery, and processed food. Kyrgyzstan joined with Russia, Belarus, and
Kazakhstan in forming a customs union in 1996 to reduce or eliminate barriers to
trade; Tajikistan subsequently became a member as well. In 2000 these five
countries broadened the scope of the customs union by founding the Eurasian
Economic Community (EAEC) to coordinate trade policies and promote economic
interaction.
In 1993 Kyrgyzstan became the first
former Soviet republic in Central Asia to introduce its own currency, the
som (40.20 som equal U.S.$1, 2006 average). In 1994 Kyrgyzstan joined a
common economic zone established by Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan for the purpose of
deepening regional integration. In response to the initiation of market reforms
and government efforts to keep inflation low, Kyrgyzstan has received financial
assistance from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World
Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In 1998 Kyrgyzstan became the
first former Soviet republic to be admitted as a member in the World Trade
Organization (WTO), an international body that promotes and enforces trade laws
and regulations.
IV | GOVERNMENT OF KYRGYZSTAN |
Kyrgyzstan is a democratic, secular
republic. Its first post-Soviet constitution was ratified in 1993 after a great
deal of public debate. Major constitutional amendments were approved by
referendum in 1994, 1996, 1998, and 2003. A new constitution was ratified in
November 2006, and an amended version of that charter was signed into law in
January 2007. After the Constitutional Court ruled that the new constitution was
invalid, a new draft constitution was approved by referendum in October 2007.
Under the constitution, all citizens age 18 and older are eligible to vote.
A | Executive |
The president of Kyrgyzstan acts as head
of state. The president is directly elected for a five-year term and may serve
no more than two consecutive terms. The president appoints the prime minister,
with the approval of the legislature, to head the government. The political
control of the president has been a major source of contention in Kyrgyzstan, as
some political groups have sought to curb presidential powers and strengthen
those of the legislature. Under the constitution approved in October 2007, the
president has the power to dismiss the government and to directly appoint judges
and local government administrators.
B | Legislature |
Kyrgyzstan has a unicameral
(single-chamber) legislature, the Jogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council). Under
the constitution approved in October 2007, the Jogorku Kenesh comprises 90
members who are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms.
In a system of proportional representation, members are chosen through central
party lists according to a party’s nationwide vote tally. (Under the 2003
constitution members had been directly elected in a single-constituency system,
which awarded seats to candidates receiving the most votes in specific
districts.)
C | Judiciary |
The judicial system consists of the
Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Higher Court of Arbitration (which
decides legal disputes between businesses), and regional and local courts. The
Constitutional Court holds supreme authority in constitutional matters and
comprises seven judges, in addition to a chairperson and his or her deputies;
its judges are appointed to serve for 15 years. The Supreme Court is the
country’s highest court in matters of civil, criminal, and administrative
justice; its judges are appointed to serve for 10 years.
D | Local Government |
For purposes of local government,
Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven regions and the municipality of Bishkek. Each
region is in turn divided into districts. The most important official in each
region is the governor, or akim, who is appointed by the president. Each
region also has a popularly elected legislature, but these bodies have little
political power. Bishkek is administered independently of regional authority,
and its local government reports directly to the central government.
E | Political Parties |
Until 1990 the Kirgiz Communist Party was
the only legal party in the republic. It was disbanded in 1991 and then
reestablished in 1992 as the Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan, but by then it
had lost its monopoly of power. Kyrgyzstan has since developed a multiparty
system. Unlike other republics of Central Asia, where political opposition has
been systematically repressed, Kyrgyzstan allowed the participation of
opposition parties after it became a sovereign nation in 1991. However, in 1999
the government introduced legislation allowing it to ban political parties that
it considered a threat to the country’s stability.
F | Defense |
Until Kyrgyzstan became independent, its
armed forces were part of the Soviet security system. In 1992 Kyrgyzstan began
to form a national defense force, and by 2004 it had an army of 12,500 troops.
All 18-year-old males must perform military service for a period of 12 to 18
months. Kyrgyzstan has entered collective security alliances with some other
former Soviet republics—including Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Russia—as well as
China to coordinate efforts to improve joint border security.
G | International Organizations |
Since 1991 Kyrgyzstan has been a member of
the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a loose alliance of 12 former
Soviet republics. Kyrgyzstan became a full member of the United Nations (UN) in
1992. Also that year, the republic joined the Economic Cooperation Organization
(ECO), an organization that promotes economic and cultural cooperation between
Islamic states, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE; until 1994 named the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe).
In 1994 Kyrgyzstan became a participant in the Partnership for Peace program of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a program that allows for limited
military cooperation between NATO and non-NATO states.
V | HISTORY OF KYRGYZSTAN |
The Kyrgyz are believed to have originally
inhabited the upper Yenisey River in central Siberia (now part of Russia). By
the 9th century they spoke a Turkic language. In the late 16th century the
Kyrgyz settled in the area that is now Kyrgyzstan. The region was conquered by
the Oirats, a Mongol people, in the late 17th century. In the 19th century it
came under the jurisdiction of the Uzbek khanate (state) of Qŭqon (Kokand). The
first Russian invasion of the region took place in the mid-19th century. Russian
forces conquered the Qŭqon khanate in 1876, thereby incorporating present-day
Kyrgyzstan into the Russian Empire. Russia then designated Central Asia the
Turkistan Kray (Russian for “territory”) within Russia. In 1916 many
Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples waged a large-scale revolt against
Russian rule. The Russian government responded with force, which compelled many
Kyrgyz to seek refuge in China, across the eastern border. The Russian monarchy
fell during the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Bolsheviks (Communists)
seized control of the Russian government.
A | Soviet Period |
During the Russian Civil War (1918-1921),
the Bolsheviks sought to reclaim territories in Central Asia and other parts of
the former Russian Empire that had split off following the collapse of the
monarchy. Despite resistance by the basmachis, an organized movement of
armed Islamic and nationalist guerrillas, the Bolsheviks managed to reestablish
control over Central Asia. In 1921 the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan became
part of the Turkistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) within the
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR). The Turkistan ASSR also
included present-day Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and part of
Kazakhstan. The Bolsheviks founded the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) in December 1922. In 1924 the Soviet authorities began to delineate new
territories in Central Asia along ethnic lines. That year the area of
present-day Kyrgyzstan became the Kara-Kirgiz Autonomous Region (renamed Kirgiz
Autonomous Region in 1925), and in 1926 the region was upgraded to an autonomous
republic, or ASSR. Ten years later it was again upgraded, this time to the
status of a constituent republic of the USSR, and was officially named the
Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). It was commonly known as Kirgizia.
Soviet policies had a drastic impact on the
life of the Kyrgyz people. The traditional Kyrgyz way of life, which was based
on nomadic livestock-herding, was abolished in the course of land reforms during
the 1920s and 1930s. The Soviet government consolidated all arable and grazing
lands into large state-owned farms, and by the mid-1930s the majority of Kyrgyz
had been forcibly settled to work on these farms. Other Kyrgyz fled to the
mountains, and even into China, to escape this fate. The collectivization of
agriculture eradicated longstanding Kyrgyz landholding patterns, which were
based on family and kinship ties.
Large-scale industrialization was another
centerpiece of the Soviet planned economy. Heavy industries and uranium-mining
operations were established in the Kirgiz SSR. This was accompanied by a large
influx of Russians into the republic’s urban areas, and Russians came to
constitute a majority of the population in Frunze (now Bishkek). The Russian
language was promoted as the primary language in education, business, and
politics. Kyrgyz-language schools were virtually nonexistent in urban
areas.
The Soviet regime meanwhile sought to
eliminate any opposition to the new order. The Kirgiz Communist Party, a local
branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), was established as the
only legal party in the republic. During Soviet leader Joseph Stalin’s violent
purges of the 1930s, many members of the Kyrgyz intelligentsia and any others
who expressed dissent were imprisoned or executed. A modest political relaxation
occurred after Stalin’s death in 1953, but centralized control from Moscow was
by then firmly established.
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet
leader. Gorbachev instituted a program of far-reaching political and economic
reforms called glasnost (Russian for “openness”) and perestroika
(“restructuring”). Gorbachev’s policies led to demands within the various Soviet
republics for greater levels of autonomy. Several unofficial quasi-political
groups formed in the Kirgiz SSR in 1989. In 1990 the Soviet government agreed to
change the Soviet constitution to allow non-Communist parties to take part in
political life. However, the conservative Kirgiz Communist Party leadership
opposed this development. In February candidates affiliated with the party ran
virtually unopposed in elections to the 350-member Kirgiz Supreme Soviet
(legislature), thus securing the party’s control over government in the
republic.
Meanwhile, reformist groups rallied around
the issue of the republic’s acute housing shortage and challenged the Kyrgyz
government to alleviate the problem. In June 1990 disagreement between Uzbeks
and Kyrgyz over access to land and housing around the city of Osh, near the
Kirgiz-Uzbek border, sparked violent interethnic clashes. The Kyrgyz government
imposed a state of emergency, and the border between the Uzbek and Kirgiz
republics was closed. The violence continued to escalate, however, and at least
300 people were killed. Order was restored in August, although the state of
emergency remained in effect until 1995.
In October 1990 the Kirgiz Supreme Soviet
convened to elect a president of the republic. Although the legislature was
dominated by the Kirgiz Communist Party, the violence in the Osh region had
discredited the party’s candidate, and Askar Akayev, a liberal academic on the
reform wing of the republic’s party organization, was elected to the newly
created post. Akayev allied himself increasingly with the new political forces
emerging in Kirgizia, and he pushed for economic and political reforms that were
opposed by many officials in the Kirgiz Communist Party bureaucracy.
In 1991 the Soviet republics began to
declare independence. Taking the name Kyrgyzstan, Kirgizia declared its
independence in September, shortly after a failed coup attempt by Communist
hardliners in Moscow. Among the heads of the 15 Soviet republics, only Askar
Akayev in Kirgizia and Boris Yeltsin in Russia openly resisted the coup. In the
wake of the coup, the Kirgiz Communist Party was temporarily dissolved (until
1992). Although Communist conservatives continued to dominate the legislature,
they did not put forth a candidate in the presidential election in October.
Akayev ran unopposed in the direct election and was reelected president. After
the USSR collapsed officially in December 1991, Kyrgyzstan joined most of the
other former Soviet republics in the newly formed Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS), a loose alliance for political, economic, and military
cooperation.
B | Independent Republic |
In 1993 Kyrgyzstan adopted its first
post-Soviet constitution. Although the constitution created a parliamentary
system of government, the president retained considerable authority, including
the power to dissolve the legislature and appoint the prime minister. The
country’s first legislative elections were scheduled for 1995, thereby allowing
the legislature that had been elected in 1990 to complete its term.
Akayev quickly went forward with an
intensive program of market-oriented economic reforms, outpacing the reforms
implemented in the other Central Asian states. He also championed democratic
reforms, allowing political opposition and a free press to develop in the
country.
In October 1994 Akayev called a national
referendum on a constitutional amendment to make the legislature a bicameral
(two-chamber) body, and voters approved the proposal. Elections to the lower
house of the legislature, called the Jogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council), were held
in February 1995. Although 11 parties won representation, independents
(politicians with no party affiliation) claimed the majority of seats.
Also in 1995, Akayev sought to extend the
length of his term through a national referendum, but the Jogorku Kenesh
resisted this initiative. The legislature’s only concession was to allow an
early presidential election, thereby giving other candidates little time to
campaign. In December Akayev won a second term amid allegations of widespread
voting irregularities. In early 1996 he called a referendum in which voters
approved constitutional amendments enhancing his powers. Akayev was subsequently
accused of developing an increasingly restrictive regime and of steering
Kyrgyzstan from the path of democratic reform.
In the legislative elections of February
and March 2000, independents again won a majority of seats. Six parties gained
representation in the Jogorku Kenesh, with the most seats going to the Union of
Democratic Forces, a newly formed alliance of three pro-Akayev parties. Many
opposition politicians were disqualified from running on minor technicalities
that were widely viewed as politically motivated. In the presidential election
held in October, Akayev was reelected to a third term. Despite a constitutional
limit of two terms, the Constitutional Court had authorized Akayev to stand for
reelection because his first term began under the constitution of the Soviet
period. International observers of both elections reported widespread voting
irregularities.
Meanwhile, in the late 1990s militant
Muslim groups began to stage armed guerrilla incursions into southern Kyrgyzstan
from neighboring Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The government responded with
large-scale military interventions, at times aided by Uzbekistan forces. Like
other Central Asian leaders, Akayev viewed Islamic fundamentalism as a potential
threat to his country’s political stability. To improve border security in the
region, he joined Kyrgyzstan to regional security alliances that include Russia
and China. Following terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11,
2001, Kyrgyzstan allowed U.S. forces to use Bishkek’s Manas airport as a base
for military operations in Afghanistan. In October 2003 Russian forces were
allowed to establish a military base in Kant, near Bishkek, under the auspices
of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Collective Security Treaty
Organization.
B1 | Political Unrest |
In 2002 political unrest erupted in
southern Kyrgyzstan, long the most economically depressed and politically
marginalized region of the country. The arrest of an opposition politician from
the region, Azimbek Beknazarov, sparked a series of protests. In March several
protesters were killed and more than a dozen were wounded when police fired into
a crowd in the southern district of Aksy. In the wake of the incident,
additional protests were held demanding that those responsible for the killings
be punished. Protesters also called for Akayev’s resignation. Several former
regional prosecutors and police officials were subsequently sentenced to prison
in connection with the Aksy shootings, but critics charged that senior officials
who had authorized the use of force had not been prosecuted.
Faced with continuing demands for his
resignation, Akayev called for a nationwide referendum in February 2003 asking
voters to decide whether he should serve out the remainder of his term through
2005, as well as to approve or reject a package of amendments to the
constitution. The amendments included guaranteeing former presidents immunity
from prosecution for actions taken while in office. According to official
results, an overwhelming majority of voters supported allowing Akayev to remain
in office and approved the proposed amendments. However, local and international
observers noted numerous voting irregularities.
The amendments of 2003 reconfigured the
Jogorku Kenesh, making it a single-chamber body composed of 75 members, while
also changing the system of voting in legislative elections. The system of
proportional representation was abolished in favor of a “first-past-the-post”
system, which critics charged would disadvantage smaller opposition parties. The
changes, scheduled to go into effect with the 2005 legislative elections, were
widely viewed as a bid by Akayev to strengthen his position ahead of his term’s
expiration later that year.
B2 | Akayev Swept From Power |
Many opposition candidates were
disqualified from running in the 2005 legislative elections for alleged campaign
violations, sparking a new wave of protests in southern Kyrgyzstan prior to the
February poll. Following an indecisive first round of voting in many districts,
runoff elections were held in mid-March. Supporters of Akayev won an
overwhelming victory, but both the opposition and election observers from the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) described the vote as
seriously flawed.
Akayev became the focal point of
continuing protests, as opposition forces demanded his resignation in the wake
of the elections. Protests gained momentum in the south, with demonstrators
taking over government buildings in Jalal-Abad and Osh, and erupted in Bishkek
in the north on March 23. The following day demonstrators stormed government
buildings in the capital. Akayev fled the country, taking refuge in Russia. He
initially refused to step down, but on April 4 he finally conceded, signing a
resignation agreement in Moscow. The newly elected Jogorku Kenesh accepted his
resignation on April 11 and scheduled presidential elections for July.
Opposition politician Kurmanbek Bakiyev, the main leader of the protests in
Bishkek, won the election by a landslide, taking 89 percent of the vote.
Election monitors associated with the OSCE said the free and fair election
represented tangible progress in establishing democratic standards in
Kyrgyzstan.
Constitutional reform was a major
rallying point of the protests that ousted Akayev, who had orchestrated many
constitutional changes over the years to increase his power at the expense of
the legislature. Once in office, however, President Bakiyev resisted
implementing the democratic reforms he had promised. Massive protests demanding
his resignation erupted in Bishkek in November 2006. Protesters also called for
immediate constitutional reform. These demands found support in the Jogorku
Kenesh, which was dominated by legislators who had supported Akayev. Faced with
a growing political crisis, Bakiyev approved a new constitution in November that
limited presidential powers and gave more authority to the legislature. However,
in the following weeks amendments were written into the new constitution that
returned many key powers to the president. Bakiyev signed the much-amended
constitution into law in January 2007.
In September 2007 the Constitutional
Court of Kyrgyzstan ruled that the new constitution was invalid because it had
never been approved by referendum. The court restored the 2003 constitution.
Bakiyev soon unveiled a new draft constitution and announced that voters would
be asked to approve it in a referendum. According to the official results of the
referendum, held in October 2007, voters gave overwhelming support to the new
charter, as well as a new electoral law. However, independent election observers
reported numerous violations in the voting. Among other provisions, the new
constitution gave the president the power to dismiss the government and to
directly appoint judges and local administrators.
Immediately following the referendum,
Bakiyev dissolved the Jogorku Kenesh and called for early parliamentary
elections. Under the new constitution members of the Jogorku Kenesh would be
chosen from central party lists through a system of proportional representation,
rather than by direct vote as before. In the elections held in December,
Bakiyev’s new political party, Ak Zhol (Bright Path), won an overwhelming
majority in the legislature. The opposition Ata Meken (Fatherland) party was
denied any seats due to the new electoral law requiring parties to receive more
than 5 percent of the national vote as well as a certain number of votes in each
region. International monitors described the election as flawed.
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