I | INTRODUCTION |
East Timor or
Timor-Leste, independent republic in Southeast
Asia, forming the eastern half of the island of Timor. It is bordered by the
Wetar Strait to the north and the Timor Sea to the south. The western half of
the island belongs to the Republic of Indonesia and is part of East Nusa
Tengarra province. East Timor was a Portuguese colony from the early 16th
century until 1975 and was claimed as a province of Indonesia from 1976 to 1999.
In August 1999 the East Timorese population voted to become an independent
nation, and the territory was subsequently placed under the administration of
the United Nations (UN) as it transitioned to complete independence. It became a
fully independent republic in May 2002 officially named the República
Democrática de Timor-Leste (Portuguese for Democratic Republic of East Timor).
The national capital is Dili, a small port city located on the northern
coast.
II | LAND AND CLIMATE |
East Timor covers 14,874 sq km (5,743 sq mi)
and includes the main eastern side of Timor, the enclave of Ocussi (Ambeno) in
the western portion of Timor, and some small islands. It has a mountainous
terrain; Tata Mailau (2,950 m/9,679 ft), in the west, is the highest peak. Many
rivers flow from the mountains through the coastal plains. The climate is hot
with monsoon rains falling between December and March. Daily temperatures range
from highs of 30° to 34°C (86° to 93°F) to lows of 20° to 23°C (68° to 73°F).
October to December is the hottest period. In the south, the foothills of the
mountains are covered in acacia and eucalyptus, but the north coast is arid,
with a severe dry season.
III | POPULATION |
East Timor had an estimated population of
859,700 in 1996, when it was still under Indonesian control. Following the vote
for independence in August 1999, violent rampages by Indonesian militia groups
forced many East Timorese to flee their homes. UN peacekeeping forces arrived to
restore order later that year, and many East Timorese refugees subsequently
returned. The estimated population of East Timor in 2008 was 1,107,432. Dili has
a population of 49,000 (2003 estimate). Some 92 percent of the population lives
in rural areas.
Many East Timorese people are descendants of
the Tetum, who traditionally inhabited the south central area of the island.
These people speak the Tetum language, a Malayo-Polynesian language of the
Austronesian language family. Other smaller ethnic groups, many with their own
languages, live in small, scattered communities.
Tetum and Portuguese are the official
languages of East Timor. Only a small minority of the population speaks
Portuguese, which was introduced when East Timor was a colony of Portugal.
However, a variant of Tetum called Tetum Prasa incorporates many Portuguese loan
words; it is widely spoken in and around Dili. Bahasa Indonesia and English are
also spoken in the country. Literacy is relatively low in East Timor; only 43
percent of individuals aged 15 and older can read and write.
Roman Catholicism is the religion of about
90 percent of the population. Many East Timorese continue to follow traditional
animist beliefs. Although Islam and Hinduism have significant followings in many
parts of the Malay Archipelago, including Indonesia, neither religion is well
established in East Timor.
IV | ECONOMY |
East Timor is one of the least economically
developed countries in the world and depends heavily on foreign aid. The
infrastructure of East Timor is underdeveloped. The country’s only major road
extends eastward from Dili, linking towns along the northern coast. Although
natural resources are limited, East Timor has offshore natural gas and oil
deposits in the Timor Sea. Under an agreement between East Timor and Australia,
East Timor is to receive 90 percent of the revenues generated from these
deposits beginning in 2005, with Australia receiving the remaining 10 percent.
This development is expected to significantly improve the economy of East Timor.
The gross domestic product (GDP) of East
Timor in 2006 was $356,000,000. In 2006 services contributed 55 percent of the
GDP, industry contributed 12.8 percent, and agriculture contributed 32.2
percent.
About 73 percent of the labor force is
engaged in agriculture. Commercially produced crops include coffee, coconuts,
cloves, and cacao. Coffee is the country’s principal export crop. Subsistence
crops include rice, maize, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Tropical fruits,
including mangoes and pineapples, are also grown. Many rural people continue to
practice shifting cultivation (also called swidden or slash-and-burn
agriculture) and use simple tools to grow their crops. Commercial forestry is
viable in some areas.
The services sector—including trade, finance,
and public administration—employs about 22 percent of the labor force. Most
service-sector jobs are located in Dili. The industry sector employs about 5
percent. Industries include the manufacture of textiles, the bottling of water,
and the processing of coffee.
The official currency of East Timor is the
U.S. dollar. The Central Bank of East Timor has the sole power of issue.
V | GOVERNMENT |
East Timor’s constitution took effect when
the territory officially became independent in May 2002. It provides for a
democratic republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as
head of government. All citizens aged 18 and older have the right to vote.
The president of East Timor is directly
elected to serve a five-year term and may serve no more than two consecutive
terms. Under the constitution, the president is the symbol of East Timorese
independence and the guarantor of the smooth functioning of the republic’s
democratic institutions. The president is the supreme commander of the defense
forces.
The prime minister oversees the day-to-day
functioning of government and chairs the Council of Ministers. The prime
minister is designated by the political party or alliance of political parties
with a majority in the national legislature and formally appointed by the
president. Ministers are also appointed by the president, following the
recommendations of the prime minister.
The legislature of East Timor is the
unicameral (single-chamber) National Parliament. Members of the National
Parliament are directly elected by universal suffrage to serve five-year terms
of office. The first National Parliament is comprised of the 88 directly elected
members of the constituent assembly, a transitional body that drafted the
constitution of East Timor. The assembly automatically became the republic’s
first legislature upon independence in May 2002 and as such is to serve a full
term. Thereafter, the constitution provides for a National Parliament of at
least 52 and no more than 65 members.
The Supreme Court of Justice is the highest
court of law in East Timor. Decisions of the Supreme Court are not subject to
appeal. The Supreme Court is headed by a president, who is appointed by the
president of the republic to a four-year term. The National Parliament elects
one member of the Supreme Court, while all other members are designated by the
Superior Council for the Judiciary. This council is the organ of management and
discipline of judges and is responsible for judiciary appointments, transfers,
and promotions.
VI | HISTORY |
Timor was a destination on ancient Chinese
trade routes and was particularly known for its sandalwood. The Portuguese began
colonizing Timor in the early 16th century as European trade and influence
expanded in the region. They exploited Timor for its forest products and spices,
and made slaves of Timorese people.
A | Colonial East Timor |
In the 17th century the Dutch also began
establishing bases on Timor, and this led to conflicts between the two European
powers. The island was formally divided in a series of agreements beginning in
1859. The Portuguese kept control over the eastern section, and the Dutch
government eventually controlled West Timor. Over the years, Portugal showed
little interest in East Timor, making life in the neglected colony very
difficult. Little money was invested in infrastructure, and illiteracy levels
were high. The area became a penal colony for political prisoners who had
resisted the government in Portugal. The colonial police force and the use of
forced labor instigated a culture of fear in the colony.
During World War II (1939-1945) Japanese
forces planned to capture Timor to use as a base for an attack on Australia. In
1942 a major Japanese force invaded Timor. The East Timorese played a
significant role in assisting a small number of Australian soldiers fighting the
Japanese in 13 months of guerrilla warfare. However, the Australians evacuated
in 1943, and the Japanese controlled East Timor until their surrender in 1945.
Up to 60,000 East Timorese were killed during the war as a result of fighting,
Japanese raids on villages, and Allied bombing aimed at the Japanese invasion
forces.
Indonesia declared independence after the
end of the war and took over West Timor from the Dutch, but East Timor remained
under Portuguese domination. However, in 1974 the government of Portugal was
overthrown and the incoming regime began liberating Portugal’s colonies around
the world. The following year Indonesia and Portugal held talks regarding the
decolonization of East Timor, and a referendum was scheduled to allow the East
Timorese to decide their future.
In this period a number of independence
movements gained strength. The major protagonists were the Timorese Democratic
Union (Uniao Democratica Timorense, or UDT), which supported a
conservative move toward independence that included retaining close ties to
Portugal, and the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Frente
Revolucionária do Timor Leste Independente, or Fretilin), which supported
outright independence. Intense negotiations to settle the status of East Timor
followed, but in August 1975 talks between Indonesia and Portugal failed. Civil
war broke out between UDT and Fretilin, and many refugees fled into Indonesian
West Timor. In November Fretilin declared unilateral independence. Despite this
declaration and continuing negotiations between all parties, Indonesian forces
invaded East Timor in December. In 1976 East Timor was declared an Indonesian
province, a designation never recognized by the United Nations (UN).
B | Resistance to Indonesian Rule |
Organized resistance to Indonesia’s
administration in East Timor grew out of existing anticolonial nationalist
organizations, particularly Fretilin. Under the leadership of José Alexandre
(“Xanana”) Gusmão, Fretilin mounted guerrilla attacks against the Indonesian
forces, inflicting serious damage. Between 1977 and 1979 the Indonesian
government resettled villagers in hamlets that were easier to control than the
previous disparate rural communities. The resettlement program, which removed
people from their land, caused widespread famine. As many as 100,000 Timorese
died between 1975 and 1979 as a result of the civil war, the Indonesian invasion
and occupation, and famine. Fretilin activist José Ramos-Horta, who fled the
island after the Indonesian invasion, spent more than two decades traveling the
world as a spokesman for East Timorese autonomy, representing Fretilin at the UN
from 1975 to the mid-1980s. Catholic bishop Carlos Ximenes Belo used the power
of the Catholic Church to defend East Timorese interests and to remain a visible
proindependence figure in East Timor. In 1983 Gusmão initiated talks with the
Indonesian military designed to plan the peaceful liberation of East Timor.
However, violence flared, a state of emergency was declared, and resistance
increased. East Timorese people were resisting not only Indonesian rule, but
also the “Indonesianization” of East Timor, as the government resettled
thousands of Indonesians from the crowded western areas of the archipelago in
Timor.
In November 1991 a huge crowd attending
the funeral of a proindependence activist marched through Dili, demonstrating in
favor of independence. The Indonesian military fired on the marchers, killing
between 100 and 180 mourners and arresting hundreds more. Timorese groups
claimed that as many as 100 of the arrested demonstrators and other witnesses of
the massacre were subsequently executed. The Dili massacre was a critical
turning point in the resistance against the Indonesians, and it attracted
widespread international condemnation.
Gusmão was captured by the Indonesian
armed forces in 1992 and imprisoned in Jakarta. Bishop Belo and Ramos-Horta
continued to push for a peaceful settlement between the Indonesian government
and the East Timorese. For their nonviolent efforts at bringing peace to East
Timor, Belo and Ramos-Horta were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1996.
C | Independence |
Indonesian president Suharto resigned in
1998. His successor, Buharuddin Jusuf (“B. J.”) Habibie, sought to resolve the
East Timor issue. A UN-sponsored referendum was planned, allowing the East
Timorese to decide if they would become an autonomous region of Indonesia or an
independent nation. Prior to the vote, armed clashes occurred between
proindependence guerrillas and militia forces. The militia claimed simply to be
patriots fighting for Indonesia but actually had roots going back prior to the
1975 Indonesian invasion. Many of the militia leaders had been members of
civilian guards often linked to procolonial, and later pro-Indonesian, forces.
These groups had a long history of antagonism against Fretilin and were believed
to be afraid of retribution if independence was achieved.
The vote was successfully held in August
1999, and autonomy within Indonesia was overwhelmingly rejected in favor of
complete independence. Violence between independence supporters and the militia,
allegedly backed by Indonesian military, increased significantly immediately
after the vote. The international community called for Indonesia to uphold the
vote, end its support for the militia, and withdraw its troops. Weeks of
violence passed before a UN force under Australian leadership was able to enter
East Timor and restore a degree of calm. During this period thousands of East
Timorese disappeared. Many fled to refugee camps throughout West Timor, but
unknown numbers were killed by the militia and Indonesian troops. Dili and other
towns were razed, the infrastructure of East Timor was almost totally destroyed,
and thousands of people hid in the mountains with only very basic supplies, if
any.
In October 1999 the Indonesian government
ratified the results of the August referendum and repealed the 1976 legislation
that had annexed East Timor. The Indonesian forces eventually withdrew, and a UN
mission was established to help rebuild East Timor and to administer its
transition to independence.
In August 2001 East Timor held its first
democratic elections, with 16 political parties participating. The elections
established an 88-member constituent assembly that was responsible for drafting
and adopting East Timor’s first constitution. Fretilin, the party most directly
associated with East Timor’s independence struggle, won 55 seats in the
assembly, giving it a simple majority. In March 2002 the assembly approved East
Timor’s constitution, which provided for a republic with a president as head of
state and a prime minister as head of government. In another preparatory step
toward full independence, East Timor held its first, direct presidential
elections in April. Former resistance leader Xanana Gusmão, who after the 1999
referendum was freed by the Indonesian government and allowed to return to East
Timor, was elected to the post with an overwhelming majority.
Amid jubilant crowds of East Timorese
celebrating a hard-won independence, East Timor became a fully independent
republic—and the world’s newest nation—at the stroke of midnight on May 20,
2002. Although nearly three years of UN governance formally came to an end, UN
peacekeepers and civilian police remain in East Timor as part of a new UN
mission to help maintain the country’s external and internal security. In
September East Timor became a member of the United Nations.
Sporadic violence continued in the
country, fueled by the slow nature of economic reform, and the peacekeeping
mission was extended in response to outbreaks of rioting. The mission was
extended for another year in May 2003, though the size of the peacekeeping force
was cut significantly. Meanwhile, the commission dealing with human rights
violations in the period 1975-1999, but specifically concerned with the violence
following the August 1999 elections, continued to try those responsible for the
atrocities. Many cases were dismissed, and there was concern when other
participants escaped with lenient sentences. Notable among the convictions was
that secured against Eurico Guterres, the former militia leader, who was found
responsible for the deaths of over 1,000 people. In 2005 a Truth Commission was
established.
In April 2006 more than 600 army personnel
were dismissed after going on strike complaining of discrimination and demanding
better employment conditions. Demonstrations followed and the violence escalated
in May with the former soldiers fighting with the regular army. Thousands fled
the capital, Dili, to avoid the violence. International military intervention
was requested by the government (to replace the International Peacekeeping Force
that left in May 2005). Armed forces, headed by Australia, were readied and
deployed at the end of the month. After being blamed for instigating the
disturbances, the prime minister was urged to stand down by President Gusmão.
Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri resisted the calls but finally resigned at the end
of June. He was replaced in early July by José Ramos-Horta, winner of the 1996
Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to win self-determination for East Timor.
Ramos-Horta was elected the second
president of East Timor in May 2007. He defeated Francisco Guterres, leader of
Fretilin, the party that had governed East Timor since independence. Gusmão,
whom Ramos-Horta succeeded, did not seek re-election. Ramos-Horta pledged to
bring stability to the troubled country, although violence broke out within
hours of his swearing-in ceremony.
In the June 2007 parliamentary elections
Fretilin, now under the leadership of Alkatiri, won the most seats with 21 but
failed to establish a majority in the 65-seat legislature. Gusmão’s newly formed
National Congress for the Reconstruction of East Timor (CNRT) took only 18 seats
but managed to put together a coalition with smaller parties, known as the
Alliance of the Parliament Majority, that claimed 37 seats. After much
contention, Ramos-Horta named Gusmão as East Timor’s prime minister in August
2007.
No comments:
Post a Comment