I | INTRODUCTION |
Dominican
Republic, country in the West Indies, occupying the eastern two-thirds of
the island of Hispaniola. The country of Haiti occupies the western third of the
island. The 315-km (195-mi) frontier with Haiti also marks a cultural divide.
The Dominican Republic was a colony of Spain for about three centuries, and most
of its people are of mixed Spanish and African descent. Today, Dominicans speak
Spanish and follow many Spanish traditions. The people of Haiti, by contrast,
are primarily of African descent and French in their traditions. The name of the
Dominican Republic in Spanish is República Dominicana.
Hispaniola is one of the islands where
explorer Christopher Columbus landed on his first voyage across the Atlantic in
1492. The city of Santo Domingo was founded in 1496 by Columbus’s brother and is
the oldest surviving European settlement in the Americas. Today, Santo Domingo
is the capital of the Dominican Republic as well as its largest city.
The Dominican Republic has had a troubled
history. It gained independence from Spain in 1821, but independence did not
bring internal peace or economic prosperity. Between 1844 and 1930 it was beset
by numerous revolutions, economic instability, and corruption in government.
From 1930 to 1961 it came under the dictatorial control of Rafael Trujillo.
Although Trujillo brought economic stability, he allowed no political freedom.
From the late 1960s on, elected presidents have held office, but they have not
been able to solve the Dominican Republic’s economic problems.
The Dominican Republic is a mountainous
country with several areas of lowland plains. Plains along the southeastern
coast are chiefly used for growing sugar. Sugar has long been the country’s
chief product and chief export. Today, manufacturing and tourism also contribute
to the country’s economy, but most of the people remain poor. The economy is
vulnerable to world food prices and also to the hurricanes that periodically
strike the country. Because of poverty, unemployment, and economic instability,
many Dominicans have chosen to leave their country and seek a better life
elsewhere.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
The Dominican Republic is bounded on the
north by the Atlantic Ocean; on the east by the Mona Passage, which separates it
from Puerto Rico; on the south by the Caribbean Sea; and on the west by Haiti.
It has an area of 48,400 sq km (18,700 sq mi). Its greatest length from east to
west is about 380 km (about 235 mi) and its maximum width, in the west, is about
265 km (about 165 mi).
The Dominican Republic is a fertile,
well-watered, mountainous country. About 80 percent of the country is covered
with a series of massive mountain ranges. They run roughly parallel and cross
the country from the northwest to the southeast. The highest mountains are known
as the Cordillera Central or Cibao Mountains. In the central part of these
mountains Pico Duarte rises to 3,098 m (10,164 ft). It is the highest peak in
the country and in the West Indies. Tucked among these mountains are lightly
populated valleys.
The Cibao Valley lies between the Cordillera
Central and the Cordillera Septentrional, a narrow and lower range to the north.
The Cordillera Septentrional separates the Cibao Valley from coastal plains
along the Atlantic Ocean. The valley is among the most fertile and best-watered
areas of the country. The coastal plain in the southeast is another fertile
region. Many of the Dominican Republic’s people live in the Cibao Valley or on
the coastal plains.
At the eastern end of the island is a low
plain, cut off from the Cibao Valley by heavily forested limestone ridges. This
plain is dominated by the Dominican capital, Santo Domingo. Sugarcane grows on
plantations on the fertile limestone soils of the plain. Nearly a third of the
island’s people live east of Santo Domingo.
The coastline of the Dominican Republic,
1,288 km (800 mi) in length, is irregular and indented by many bays forming
natural harbors, notably Ocoa Bay in the south and the Samaná Bay in the
northeast. A number of adjacent islands, among them Beata and Saona, are
possessions of the Dominican Republic.
A | Rivers and Lakes |
The Cibao Valley is drained to the
northwest by the Yaque del Norte river and to the east by the Yuna and Camú
rivers. The Yaque del Norte is about 200 km (125 mi) long and is the longest
river in the country. The southwestern part of the Cordillera Central is drained
by the Yaque del Sur river.
The principal lake is the large saltwater
Lago Enriquillo, situated in the southwestern part of the country. It extends 43
km (27 mi) in length and lies 44 m (144 ft) below sea level.
B | Climate |
The Dominican Republic has a semitropical
climate, tempered by the prevailing easterly winds. Temperatures of more than
23°C (more than 74°F) are registered in the lowlands throughout the year. During
the summer months temperatures range between 27° and 35°C (80° and 95°F) in
these regions. The highlands are considerably cooler.
Throughout the country, winter is the
driest period and summer the wettest. Most rain falls at the end of summer,
coinciding with the hurricane season. Annual precipitation averages about 1,500
mm (about 60 in), but considerably more moisture is received by the mountainous
areas of the north. Mountain slopes exposed to prevailing northeast winds
receive more than 2,000 mm (80 in) of annual rainfall, and tropical rain forests
flourish on these slopes. Drier climates occur on the south coast. Tropical
hurricanes occasionally strike the country and can cause enormous damage.
C | Natural Resources |
The main resources of the Dominican Republic
are agricultural. The fertile soil in the valleys is well-suited to farming.
Many of the mountain slopes are covered with forests, although the government
restricts logging in an effort to halt deforestation. The country also has
valuable deposits of nickel, gold, and silver.
D | Plants and Animals |
The vegetation of the Dominican Republic,
like that of the other islands of the West Indies, is extremely varied and
luxuriant. Among the species of indigenous trees are mahogany, rosewood,
satinwood, cypress, pine, oak, and cacao. Many species of useful plants and
fruits are common, including rice, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, yam, banana,
pineapple, mango, fig, grape, and breadfruit.
The most noteworthy mammal among the
indigenous animals is the agouti, a rodent. Wild dogs, hogs, and cattle are
abundant, as are numerous reptiles, notably snakes, lizards, and caimans.
Humpback whales congregate off the northern coast of the Dominican Republic
during the winter months, which is their breeding season. Manatees and sea
turtles also live in Dominican waters. Common birds include blue herons, glossy
ibis, flamingos, and brown pelicans.
E | Environmental Issues |
Urban dwellers of the Dominican Republic
enjoy good access to safe water, but rural communities do not. While current
water use is low relative to available resources, water shortages do occur.
Although deforestation was once a serious
problem in the Dominican Republic, by the beginning of the 21st century, the
annual rate of deforestation had decreased significantly. In 2007, 67 percent of
the land area was officially protected in some way, but the country lacks the
institutional and legal frameworks necessary for effective environmental
management. The government has ratified international environmental agreements
pertaining to climate change, desertification, endangered species, marine
dumping, marine life conservation, and ozone layer protection.
III | PEOPLE |
Most of the population of the Dominican
Republic is of mixed Spanish and black-African descent. Dominican society has
long been characterized by class distinctions based on skin color. The elite,
primarily light-skinned and of European descent, have traditionally dominated
the professions and included most of the large landholders. Dark-skinned people
of African descent generally make up the urban and rural poor. In the middle are
people of mixed descent, with skin colors ranging from light to dark, who work
in trade, government, or agriculture. Urban dwellers make up 60 percent of the
population.
The population of the Dominican Republic
(2008 estimate) is 9,507,133, giving the country an overall population density
of 197 persons per sq km (509 per sq mi). Many of the people are poor and have
little opportunity of improving their lot.
A | Principal Cities |
Santo Domingo, the capital and the leading
port, had an estimated population of 2,302,759 in 2006. Santiago, known in full
as Santiago de los Caballeros, is a center of trade, industry, and
transportation in the north. It is the country’s second largest city, with a
population of; 908,250) in (2006. Other important cities include San Pedro de
Macorís (2002; 217,141), a seaport on the Caribbean coast; La Vega (2001
estimate; 241,917), a commercial center for the agricultural north; and San
Francisco de Macorís (2002; 156,267), a commercial center for the eastern Cibao
Valley and northeastern lowlands.
B | Language and Religion |
Spanish is the official language of the
Dominican Republic. English is also spoken, and a French dialect is heard along
the Haitian frontier. Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. There is a
small Protestant community, and a small percentage of the people follow African
animist religious beliefs.
C | Education |
The Dominican Republic provides free,
compulsory education to children between the ages of 5 and 13. Some 85 percent
of the population aged 15 or older is literate. In the 2000 school year 1.4
million pupils attended primary schools. While virtually all children attend
primary school, only 59 percent of secondary school-aged children were
enrolled.
The Autonomous University of Santo
Domingo, the oldest university in the western hemisphere, was authorized in
1538, although classes did not begin until 1558. Four faculties were
established, those of philosophy, medicine, theology, and jurisprudence, and the
university attracted students from Mexico, Cuba, Venezuela, and elsewhere in
Central America. The institution was originally called the Universidad de Santo
Tomás de Aquino and was run by Dominican friars. It now occupies a modern campus
known as University City.
The Catholic University Madre y Maestra
was founded in Santiago in 1962. Other universities include Pedro Henríquez
Ureña National University (1966) and Eugenio María de Hostos University (1981),
both in Santo Domingo; Northeastern Catholic University (1978) in San Francisco
de Macorís; and Central University of the East (1970) in San Pedro de Macorís.
Art and music are taught in the national School of Fine Arts, and there is also
a National Conservatory of Music.
D | Culture |
The first permanent colony of Europeans
in the western hemisphere was established in the Dominican Republic. Santo
Domingo, founded in 1496 by the brother of Christopher Columbus, was the first
permanent city in the New World. Some of the old colonial buildings are still
standing, fine examples of which are in Santo Domingo. The colonial center of
Santo Domingo was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990.
Art, music, and literature developed in
part along Western patterns, with a strong African cultural component. The
African heritage is especially notable in the country’s folk culture,
particularly the music. The two traditions—African and Spanish—blend in the
popular national song and dance, the merengue. Merengue music can be heard
everywhere on the island, and every summer Santo Domingo holds a two-week
merengue festival at which the world’s finest merengue bands and merengue
dancers appear.
Most of the country’s major cultural
institutions are in Santo Domingo. They include the Museo de las Casas Reales
(Museum of the Royal Houses), a museum of colonial life; the Museo del Hombre
Dominicano (Museum of the Dominican Man), with exhibits on pre-Columbian life on
the island; and the Museo de Arte Moderna (Museum of Modern Art), with works by
Dominican artists. The National Aquarium and National Botanical Garden, also in
Santo Domingo, feature impressive displays. Puerto Plata on the north coast of
the island has the Museo de Ambar, which displays unusual pieces of Dominican
amber with plants and insects and other animals embedded inside them.
Among the country’s most beloved writers
is Salomé Ureña de Henríquez, who is considered a national poet. She lived in
the second half of the 1800s and in 1881 organized the Instituto de Señoritas,
the first Dominican center of higher education for women. Her two sons, Pedro
and Max Henríquez-Ureña, became distinguished Latin American writers and
thinkers. Other Dominican writers include Gastón Fernando Deligne, a modernist
poet of the late 1800s and early 1900s; Fabio Fiallo, author of delicate love
lyrics in the early 1900s; Manuel de Jesús Galván, author of Enriquillo
(1882), a historical novel based on an early Native American revolt against the
Spaniards; and Manuel del Cabral, a versatile 20th-century poet whose work
showed his strong sympathies with the country’s impoverished blacks.
Juan Bosch, president of the republic in
1963, was also the most distinguished Dominican writer of the mid-20th century,
well known as a novelist, short-story writer, and essayist. Joaquín Balaguer,
the republic’s president from 1986 to 1996, was also an accomplished writer on
many topics. Much of the best-known Dominican writing today comes from
Dominicans who have emigrated. Julia Alvarez, who moved with her family from the
Dominican Republic to New York City at the age of 10, has written about the
collision of the two cultures in such works as the novel How the Garcia Girls
Lost Their Accents (1991) and the children’s book How Tia Lola Came to
Stay (2001).
E | Baseball |
Baseball is the national sport of the
Dominican Republic. Every town, even the poorest, has a baseball park. The first
Dominican to play major league baseball in the United States was pitcher Ozzie
Virgil, who joined the Detroit Tigers in 1958. Dominican pitcher Juan Marichal,
who played for the San Francisco Giants, earned the nickname “Dandy Dominican”
for his high leg kick. Famous Dominican players of the early 2000s included
outfielders Vladimir Guerrero, Manny Ramirez, and Sammy Sosa, and pitcher Pedro
Martinez. Although born in the United States, infielder Alex Rodriguez grew up
in the Dominican Republic, where his father was a professional baseball player.
Sosa was born in San Pedro de Macorís, which calls itself “The City Which Has
Given the Most Major Leaguers to the World.”
IV | ECONOMY |
The economy of the Dominican Republic was
traditionally based on agriculture, especially sugar. However, today only 16
percent of the workforce is still employed in farming or raising livestock, and
services employ 63 percent of the working population.
The Dominican government began to diversify
the economy in the 1970s and 1980s and to place more emphasis on mining,
tourism, and manufacturing. Today, industry and tourism surpass agriculture in
economic importance. However, these efforts have not lessened the wide gap
between rich and poor or alleviated poverty in the Dominican Republican. In
addition, the economy remains vulnerable to the effects of hurricanes and to
sharp fluctuations in the prices paid for its primary exports, sugar and other
agricultural products. The Dominican economy also is highly dependent on the
economy of its leading trade partner, the United States, for export purchases
and tourist revenue. Money sent back by Dominicans living abroad also
contributes to the nation’s income. There is a large Dominican community in New
York City.
In 2006 the country’s gross domestic product
(GDP) totaled $31.8 billion, or $3,312.20 per person. GDP is a measure of the
value of all the goods and services a country produces. In 2006 the national
budget included $5.7 billion in revenues and $5.2 billion in expenditures.
A | Agriculture |
The principal cash crops of the Dominican
Republic are raised on large plantations. Sugarcane is the main cash crop; the
largest plantations are in the southeast. Most Dominican farmers, however,
engage in subsistence cultivation, growing barely enough for their own needs. In
2006 some 5.2 million metric tons of sugarcane were produced. Other important
crops (with 2006 production in metric tons) were fruits and berries, especially
bananas (1,479,685); rice (700,000); coffee (43,525); cacao (31,361); and
tobacco (12,000). Cattle, hogs, and poultry are raised primarily for local
consumption. The main crops for local consumption are rice, beans, cassava, and
plantains, the mainstays of the Dominican diet.
B | Forestry and Fishing |
Some 28 percent of the land of the
Dominican Republic is forested. The government fosters conservation and has
regulated the forest industry since the early 1960s, but serious deforestation
continues. The main woods cut are mahogany, satinwood, pine, and cedar.
The fishing industry is underdeveloped,
mainly because of a lack of deep-sea fishing equipment and refrigeration
facilities. The catch, which typically includes mackerel, tuna, bonito, and
snapper, totaled 12,086 metric tons in 2005.
C | Mining |
Ferronickel, mined in the central part of
the Dominican Republic, dominates the country’s mineral production. Production
of bauxite, formerly the Dominican Republic’s dominant mineral export, virtually
ended in the early 1980s. Mineral products in 2000 included nickel (40,000
metric tons), gold (650 kg/1,400 lbs), and silver (4 metric tons).
D | Manufacturing |
Sugar refining is a leading industrial
activity in the Dominican Republic, accounting for about half the country’s
manufacturing income. Annual output of refined sugar in 2006 was 463,856 metric
tons. Other manufactured products include textiles, cement, clothing and
footwear, leather goods, paper, glassware, food, and drinks.
E | Tourism |
The Dominican Republic has gained
popularity as a tourist destination since the 1990s as a result of its extensive
beaches, varied scenery, and low-priced resorts. Beach resorts are located along
both the Atlantic and Caribbean coasts. The country draws large numbers of
tourists from Europe as well as from the United States. In addition to enjoying
the white-sand beaches, visitors to the island engage in windsurfing,
surfboarding, scuba diving, and snorkeling. In winter, whale-watching is a
popular activity. Santo Domingo has interesting buildings from the colonial
period and a number of museums. The impressive national aquarium, national zoo,
and national botanic garden are all in Santo Domingo. Mountain biking and hiking
are two ways of seeing the scenery in the country’s interior. Excursions by jeep
to the mountains of the interior are also available. The national parks are
places to enjoy the country’s birdlife and tropical vegetation.
F | Energy |
Some 89 percent of the Dominican
Republic’s electricity is produced in thermal plants; hydroelectric
installations generated the remainder. In 2003 the country produced 12.6 billion
kilowatt-hours of electricity.
Interruptions in the electricity supply
seriously disrupted the country’s economy, starting in the 1990s. Electricity
blackouts lasted up to 20 hours a day. The government’s failure to solve the
energy crisis led to widespread protests. Hurricanes also damaged electricity
transmission and distribution networks.
G | Currency and Banking |
The unit of currency in the Dominican
Republic is the peso (33.40 pesos equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The
republic has several commercial banks; one, the Banco de Reservas, is government
controlled. The Central Bank of the Dominican Republic is the sole bank of
issue. Bank fraud involving embezzlement during the late 1990s and early 2000s
contributed to the country’s economic woes. The second-largest Dominican bank
collapsed in 2003, and the national debt soared as the Central Bank reimbursed
depositors and covered the failed bank’s liabilities.
H | Foreign Trade |
The principal exports of the Dominican
Republic typically are sugar and sugar products, ferronickel, coffee, cocoa, and
tobacco. Sugar and sugar products usually make up a considerable part of all
export earnings. Machinery, iron and steel, foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum
products, and chemicals are leading imports. In 2001 the total value of exports
was $814 million and of imports $5.5 billion. Tourism revenues help make up the
foreign trade deficit. The United States is the leading trade partner of the
Dominican Republic. In 1995 the Dominican Republic joined the Association of
Caribbean States (ACS), a free trade group. The ACS is composed of the members
of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) and 12 nations bordering
the Caribbean.
I | Transportation |
The road system of the Dominican Republic
totaled 12,600 km (7,829 mi) in 1999. Almost all travel in the country is by
road. Most of the 1,650 km (1,025 mi) of railroad in use is privately owned and
serves the sugar plantations. Aside from the Santo Domingo port, other large
ports are located at Puerto Plata in the north and Barahona in the southwest.
The country is served by international and domestic airlines. International
airports are located at Santo Domingo, Puerto Plata, Barahona, La Romana,
Samana, and Santiago.
J | Communications |
The Dominican Republic had 130 commercial
radio stations and 10 television networks in the year 2000. The country has an
average 178 radio receivers for every 1,000 inhabitants and 99 television sets
per 1,000 inhabitants. In 2004 there were 11 daily newspapers, with a combined
daily circulation of 230,000; El Caribe and Listín Diario, both
issued in Santo Domingo, are influential. There are 101 telephone mainlines in
use for every 1,000 inhabitants. The government regulates the media in the
Dominican Republic, although it rarely interferes with television and radio
programs.
K | Labor |
The labor force of the Dominican Republic
included 4.1 million workers in 2006. An estimated 63 percent of all Dominican
workers hold jobs in services, and another 21 percent work in industry. The
Confederación de Trabajadores Dominicanos, and the Unión General de Trabajadores
Dominicanos, two of the nation’s leading labor unions, merged in 1988.
V | GOVERNMENT |
The Dominican Republic is governed under a
constitution adopted in 1966 and amended in 1994 and 2002.
A | Central Government |
Executive power in the Dominican Republic
is vested in a president, who is popularly elected for a term of four years. The
president appoints a cabinet and may also introduce bills in congress. The
constitution was amended in 2002 to permit the president to serve two terms in
succession.
B | Legislature |
The bicameral congress of the Dominican
Republic is composed of an upper chamber (the Senate), which has 32 members, and
a lower chamber (the Chamber of Deputies), with 150 deputies. All legislative
members are popularly elected for terms of four years.
C | Judiciary |
The highest tribunal in the Dominican
Republic is the Supreme Court of Justice, made up of at least 11 judges. The
National Judiciary Council appoints the judges to the Supreme Court judges, and
they appoint judges to the other courts. Lower courts include courts of first
instance, courts of appeal, and a land tribunal.
D | Political Parties |
The Dominican Party was the only legal
party between 1930 and 1961, when it was dissolved and new parties were
established. The principal parties are the Partido Revolucionario Dominicano
(Dominican Revolutionary Party, or PRD), the Partido de la Liberación Dominicana
(Dominican Liberation Party, or PLD), and the Partido Reformista Social
Cristiano (Christian Social Reform Party, or PRSC). The conservative PRSC draws
support from the peasant and middle classes, and the PRD is composed largely of
landless peasants and urban workers. The two have been archrivals since the
1960s. The left-wing PLD was formed by breakaway members of the PRD in
1973.
E | Local Government |
The Dominican Republic is divided into 31
provinces plus the Distrito Nacional (National District), which encompasses
Santo Domingo, the capital. The provinces are subdivided into municipalities and
townships.
The 31 provinces of the Dominican Republic
are administered by governors, who are appointed by the country’s president.
Each municipality and the Distrito Nacional elect a mayor and a municipal
council as the administrative body.
F | Health and Welfare |
Different administrations have sought to
raise health standards in the Dominican Republic, and various government
programs provide health services. A law passed in 2000 created universal
health-care insurance. One of its aims was to improve maternal and child health.
Malnutrition is common among the children of poor families. Health care is
provided by both public and private institutions, but facilities for the urban
and rural poor are inadequate. Migration from rural areas to large cities, where
unemployment remains high, has created slum conditions on the edges of the
cities. Clean water and adequate sewage facilities are largely lacking in these
urban slums. In 2004 the country had 532 inhabitants for every physician.
G | Defense |
In 2004 the armed forces of the Dominican
Republic comprised an army of 15,000, a navy of 4,000, and an air force of
5,500. Military service is voluntary.
VI | HISTORY |
Christopher Columbus landed in 1492 at the
island he called Isla Española (Spanish Island), a name that later turned into
Hispaniola. He left about 40 men at a fort, La Navidad, that he built in what is
now northern Haiti. On his return in 1493 he found that the settlement had been
wiped out by natives. Columbus established a new settlement farther east, near
present-day Puerto Plata, and left his brother Bartholomew in charge while he
continued his voyage. In 1496 Bartholomew Columbus, acting on instructions from
his brother, founded the city of Santo Domingo on the southern coast. It became
the first permanent settlement established by Europeans in the Americas.
The native inhabitants whom Columbus
encountered on his arrival in Hispaniola were Arawak-speaking Taíno people. The
Taíno lived in villages, headed by chiefs, and engaged principally in farming
and fishing. By the mid-1500s the Taíno people had died out in the Dominican
Republic as a result of smallpox and brutal treatment by the Spanish settlers
who tried to enslave them. In the late 1990s the paved plazas and walls of a
large Taíno city were uncovered in the Dominican Republic’s East National Park.
After the Taíno people died out, the Spanish
brought Africans into Hispaniola to work as slaves in place of the Taíno
laborers. In time the Spanish settlers migrated from Hispaniola to South
America, and for about a century the island was sparsely populated. Although
Spain claimed the entire island of Hispaniola, the Spanish were unable to
prevent French encroachment on the western end. In 1697, by the Treaty of
Ryswick, the western third of Hispaniola was formally ceded to France and became
known as Saint-Domingue; it is now Haiti. The remaining Spanish section of the
island was called Santo Domingo. It is now the Dominican Republic.
A | Shifting Rule |
The French in their part developed a
flourishing plantation economy and a lively trade. The Spanish area, bypassed by
commerce and shown little interest by the administrative authorities, declined.
Many people left, and much of the land remained unpopulated. During much of the
1700s, the island was fought over by Spain, France, and England. Spain finally
ceded the colony of Santo Domingo to France in 1795.
In the 1790s slaves in Saint-Domingue
(Haiti) staged a revolt, led by François Dominique Toussaint Louverture and
others. The revolt ended slavery in Saint-Domingue. With France in upheaval
during the French Revolution (1789-1799), Toussaint was able to take control of
the island. In 1801 he captured the neighboring colony of Santo Domingo and
ended slavery there. Although French forces later defeated Toussaint, France had
lost interest in its New World possessions. Haiti declared its independence in
1804. In 1809 Spain regained control of Santo Domingo.
After 1814, however, the Spanish
administration became increasingly tyrannical, and in 1821 the Dominicans rose
in revolt, proclaiming their independence. It was short-lived. The following
year, in 1822, Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer led his troops into the
country and annexed it to Haiti, thus bringing the entire island under his
control. Boyer ruled until 1844, when Dominican forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte
revolted. On February 27, 1844, Santo Domingo declared its independence again
and took the name República Dominicana (Dominican Republic). A constitution
modeled on that of the United States was put forth in November 1844. Dominicans
celebrate February 27 as their independence day.
B | A Period of Strife |
The first president of the new Dominican
Republic was Pedro Santana, who served for three terms between 1844 and 1861.
Both his administrations and the subsequent ones were characterized by popular
unrest and frequent boundary disputes with Haiti. The internal strife was most
clearly discernible in the two political groups that took root within the
republic: One faction advocated return to Spanish rule and the other, annexation
to the United States.
For a brief period, from 1861 to 1863, the
Dominican Republic returned to Spanish rule, led by former president Santana,
who hoped thereby to perpetuate himself in office. A popular revolt between 1863
and 1864 and subsequent military reverses and U.S. intervention forced the
Spanish government to withdraw its forces and to annul the annexation. The
second Dominican Republic was proclaimed in February 1865. Political turmoil
continued, however, through the rest of the 19th century.
The government financed its military
forces through huge foreign loans on which it paid exorbitant commissions and
interest. In 1869 President Buenaventura Báez negotiated a treaty for the
annexation of his country by the United States as a means of solving its
financial problems. This treaty, though it passed the Dominican legislature,
failed in the U.S. Senate because of opposition to President Ulysses S. Grant.
Other revolutions and new regimes followed
until, in 1882, General Ulises Heureaux forced his way into the presidency. He
dominated Dominican political life until 1899, when he was assassinated by Ramón
Cáceres, who himself later became president. Although under Heureaux there was
relative internal peace, his financial transactions increased the country’s
foreign debt.
By 1904 foreign governments were exerting
heavy pressure on the Dominican government for repayment of loans. In 1906 the
Dominican government signed a 50-year treaty with the United States, turning
over to the United States the administration and control of its customs
department. In exchange the United States undertook to adjust the foreign
financial obligations of the Dominican government. Internal disorders during the
ensuing decade finally culminated in the establishment of a military government
by the U.S. Marines, who occupied the country from 1916 to 1924. Control of the
country was, however, gradually restored to the people, and in 1924 a
constitutional government under an elected president assumed control.
C | The Trujillo Era |
The outstanding political development of
the subsequent period was the dictatorship established by General Rafael
Leónidas Trujillo Molina. Elected to the presidency in 1930, Trujillo forcibly
eliminated all opposition, thereby acquiring absolute control of the nation. For
the next 31 years, although he personally occupied the presidency only half that
time (from 1930 to 1938 and again from 1943 to 1952), Trujillo presided over one
of the tightest dictatorships in the world. Even when out of office, Trujillo
kept an office in the presidential palace, and the leading government officials
reported directly to him. After taking power he renamed Santo Domingo, the
country’s capital, Ciudad Trujillo (Trujillo City) after himself.
With the military as the basis of his
power, Trujillo and his family directed practically every aspect of the nation’s
life, from the courts down to the pettiest bureaucrat. The national economy,
while greatly expanded and modernized, was run as the dictator’s personal
corporation, and the political process was completely dominated by his Dominican
Party. Backed at first by the United States, Trujillo used this support to his
own advantage in shoring up his power. Discontent and criticism, widespread
especially after World War II ended in 1945, were met with terror and
self-serving propaganda.
During Trujillo’s years in power, however,
considerable material progress was made. Many new hospitals and housing projects
were finished, a pension plan was established, and public health facilities,
harbors, and roads were improved. A boundary dispute with neighboring Haiti,
going back to 1844, was settled in 1935. Trujillo repaid the country’s foreign
debt by 1947, and in 1941 the U.S. government terminated its administration of
the Dominican customs.
In 1948 the Dominican Republic became a
charter member of the Organization of American States (OAS), which in subsequent
years frequently condemned the Trujillo regime both for interference in the
internal affairs of neighboring countries and “flagrant and widespread
violations of human rights.” OAS criticism culminated in 1960 in a resolution
calling for severance of diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic; the
United States did so shortly afterward. These external pressures were coupled
with growing internal resistance to the regime. The regime’s difficulties were
intensified by an economic crisis, which was brought on by heavy expenditures on
armaments, large sums sent abroad by the Trujillos, and a boycott imposed by the
OAS on certain goods. The Trujillo era ended with the dictator’s assassination
on May 26, 1961.
D | Democracy Restored—and Toppled |
President Joaquín Balaguer had assumed
office in 1960 as a Trujillo puppet. He began the ticklish process of
dismantling the dictatorship. Political parties were allowed to organize and
exiles began to return home. Opposition groups, however, rallied against
Balaguer, and in January 1962 he was overthrown by the military.
In December 1962 the Dominican Republic
held its first free election in nearly four decades. Juan Bosch, a returned
exile, won by a wide margin and was inaugurated early in 1963. He designed a
program to push economic development, bring about fundamental social reforms,
and give the country democratic freedoms. Almost immediately, opposition to his
regime began to develop. Bosch was criticized as being too tolerant of communist
groups and supporters of Cuba’s leader Fidel Castro, and the republic’s business
community felt threatened by changes in the country’s economic policy. In
September 1963 Bosch was deposed by a military coup. The leaders of the coup
installed a three-man civilian junta to run the country. To indicate disapproval
of the coup, the United States withheld recognition until the new regime
promised to hold elections by 1965.
E | The United States Intervenes |
Throughout 1964 restlessness within the
country was manifested by strikes and sabotage and by conflicts within the
junta. In 1965 a group within the army rebelled against the government with the
avowed purpose of restoring Bosch as president. Air force and navy elements
opposed the insurgents, and Santo Domingo became the battleground of a civil
war. The United States landed troops, at first under the guise of protecting
American citizens and other foreign nationals in Santo Domingo. Later, U.S.
President Lyndon B. Johnson defended the intervention by claiming that communist
elements were attempting to take control of the rebel movement.
F | The Balaguer Government |
In May 1965 the OAS arranged a cease-fire
in the Dominican civil war and established an inter-American peacekeeping force.
U.S. Marines were withdrawn. Negotiations were held to establish a Dominican
government that would be acceptable to both the loyalists and the rebels (who
called themselves “constitutionalists” to indicate their desire to restore the
constitutionally elected government of Bosch). Hector García-Godoy, former
foreign minister under Bosch, assumed the presidency in September.
A presidential election was held in 1966,
which former president Balaguer, a conservative, won. His administration,
although not entirely democratic, restored relative stability to the country.
The economy showed strength, aided by high sugar prices, foreign investment, and
increased tourism, enabling Balaguer to win reelection easily in 1970 and 1974.
The Partido Revolucionario Dominicano (PRD), led by Bosch, boycotted both
elections, charging restrictions on its campaign activities.
G | The PRD Wins Power |
In the mid-1970s a sharp decline in world
sugar prices adversely affected the Dominican economy, and Balaguer’s support
began to dwindle. In the 1978 elections he was turned out of office, defeated by
the PRD candidate, Silvestre Antonio Guzmán. After foiling a plot by right-wing
military men to prevent him from taking office, Guzmán purged the armed forces
of many Balaguer supporters, released some 200 political prisoners of the
previous regime, and eased press censorship. The economy remained troubled by
low sugar prices and high oil prices and was further damaged by two severe
hurricanes in 1979.
The PRD chose not to nominate Guzmán in
1982. He died in July of that year, an apparent suicide, shortly after Senator
Salvador Jorge Blanco, the PRD candidate, was elected to succeed him. To rescue
the country from its deepening economic crisis, Jorge Blanco turned to the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), which demanded that the Dominican government
institute austerity measures in exchange for a three-year IMF loan package.
These measures, including price increases for basic foods and gasoline, led to
protest riots throughout the nation in 1984 and 1985. PRD promises to
redistribute land and end corruption went unfulfilled, and the party proved
unable to halt killings and illegal detentions by the police. Balaguer was
returned as president in 1986 by a slim margin. Deficits and foreign debt
mounted; water and power service faltered. In 1988, Jorge Blanco was tried in
absentia and found guilty of corruption during his presidential years.
In the 1990 presidential election,
Balaguer barely defeated Bosch. He was reelected in 1994 but agreed to serve
only a two-year term after he was accused of electoral fraud. In a presidential
runoff election held in June 1996 Leonel Fernández Reyna of the Dominican
Liberation Party (PLD) defeated José Francisco Peña Gómez of the PRD to win the
presidency. The PRD was not in opposition for long, however. In 2000 the party
returned to power with the election of Hipólito Mejía to the presidency.
Although Fernández was credited with helping make the Dominican Republic a
popular tourist destination in the late 1990s, his tenure was tainted by
corruption scandals.
H | Bank Collapse and Ouster of Mejía |
Mejía served only one term. In the 2004
presidential election he was defeated by Fernández, who ran again as the
candidate of the PLD. Mejía’s term was marked by the collapse of Banco
Intercontinental, the country’s second-largest bank. His decision to bail out
the bank’s depositors, many of whom were wealthy supporters of the PRD,
reportedly caused the devaluation of the Dominican currency and led to an
additional $2 billion in foreign debt. The resulting economic crisis, one of the
worst in decades, saw a rise in food prices, an unemployment rate of 17 percent,
and frequent electricity shortages. To resolve the crisis and to qualify for
badly needed loans from the International Monetary Fund, Fernández was expected
to cut government payrolls and impose other austerity measures.
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