| I | INTRODUCTION |
Denmark, nation in northwestern Europe. Denmark’s
official name in Danish is Kongeriget Danmark (Kingdom of Denmark). The
Vikings founded the Danish kingdom more than 1,100 years ago, making it one of
Europe’s oldest continuous kingdoms. The national flag, the Dannebrog,
has been in use since 1219, when it is said to have fallen from heaven to
inspire battle-weary troops to victory. Copenhagen (København in Danish)
is Denmark’s capital and largest city.
Historically and culturally, Denmark is part
of Scandinavia. In centuries past, the Danish monarch at times ruled all or
parts of both Norway and Sweden, as well as the island nation of Iceland.
Geographically, Denmark remains a bridge between continental Europe and the more
northerly Scandinavian countries.
Today, Denmark is a small country that
occupies most of the Jutland Peninsula (Jylland in Danish), as well as
the hundreds of islands of the Danish archipelago. The southern border of
Jutland touches Germany, Denmark’s only land boundary with the European
mainland. The boundary measures just 68 km (42 mi) long. Denmark’s principal
islands lie to the east, between Jutland and Sweden. The largest and most
important island is Sjælland (also called Zealand). The greater part of
Copenhagen, Denmark’s capital for 600 years, covers the eastern shore of
Sjælland.
The Kingdom of Denmark also includes the Faroe
Islands, a collection of 18 islands that lie northwest of Scotland; and
Greenland, far to the northwest across the North Atlantic Ocean, near North
America. Politically, both Greenland and the Faroe Islands are part of Denmark,
but they are self-governing in all matters except defense and foreign
affairs.
Despite its northerly location, Denmark’s
climate is relatively mild. The climate is moderated by the warm waters of the
North Atlantic Drift, a part of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps north along
Denmark’s west coast. Denmark is a low-lying country of rolling hills, tidy
farms, and green moorlands. The sea is never more than 64 km (40 mi) away,
giving the country a seacoast atmosphere. Rain, fog, and gray skies are
common.
Denmark is a wealthy and thoroughly modern
country, and its citizens enjoy one of the highest standards of living in
Europe. Through skill and imagination, the Danes have made very effective use of
limited natural resources. Denmark maintains one of Europe’s oldest and most
extensive welfare states. Denmark’s contributions to the arts are numerous,
especially in fashion, industrial design, cinema, and literature. Denmark’s
best-known writers include Hans Christian Andersen, whose fairy tales are famous
throughout the world, and the religious philosopher Søren Kierkegaard.
| II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
Excluding the Faroe Islands and Greenland,
Denmark has an area of 43,094 sq km (16,639 sq mi), making it about twice the
size of the state of Massachusetts. The Jutland Peninsula, or Danish mainland,
accounts for about three-quarters of Denmark’s total land area.
Apart from the border with Germany to the
south, the Danish mainland is bounded on all other sides by water. The North Sea
lies to the west of Jutland and the Baltic Sea to the east. The Skagerrak and
Kattegat, two straits that link the two seas, separate Denmark from Norway and
Sweden respectively. To the east, a narrow strait called the Øresund (Öresund
in Swedish; The Sound in English), separates the island of Sjælland
from the Danish mainland.
| A | Islands |
Of the approximately 500 islands in the
Danish archipelago, only a few are large and fewer than 100 are inhabited. Apart
from Sjælland, the principal islands are Fyn, Lolland, Falster, Langeland, and
Møn. Bornholm, a small island in the Baltic Sea, lying about 145 km (90 mi) east
of Sjælland Island, is also a part of Denmark. Bridges connect many of the
islands.
| B | Surface Features |
Denmark is a lowland area. The average
elevation is just 30 m (about 100 ft) above sea level. A ridge of low, rounded
hills extends the length of central Jutland. They include Yding Skovhøj (173
m/568 ft), the highest point in Denmark.
The western coast of the mainland is low
and rimmed by dunes and sandbars, which shelter the land from North Sea storms.
The eastern coast, which is slightly higher in elevation, is deeply indented by
a series of fjords. The Limfjorden, the most northerly of these indentations,
extends in a generally east to west direction and cuts across the entire breadth
of the peninsula from the Kattegat strait to the North Sea.
Denmark has no large lakes or long rivers.
However, the land is dotted with small lakes and bogs and threaded with short
streams. For centuries, farmers have drained sensitive, low-lying wetlands to
create arable land. As a result, few of Denmark’s original meandering streams
remain intact; most have been artificially straightened. The longest river is
the 158-km (98-mi) Guden River in eastern Jutland, which flows into Randers
Fjord and is navigable as it nears the sea.
| C | Climate |
Denmark has a temperate maritime climate,
with cool summers and generally mild winters. The winds are strong for much of
the year and have a prevailing direction from the west. The mean temperature in
summer is about 16°C (about 61°F); in winter, about 0°C (about 32°F), with
slightly cooler average temperatures in the eastern part of the country. Average
annual rainfall is about 610 mm (about 24 in). The wettest months are typically
July through October.
| D | Natural Resources |
Some 53 percent of the total land area of
Denmark is cultivated—a relatively large percentage for an industrialized
nation. Much of Denmark’s energy needs are met by petroleum and natural gas
reserves located in Denmark’s sector of the North Sea. Other minerals are
limited. The most common include the clays, peat, and other deposits common to
boggy country.
The gray soils of Denmark are only
moderately fertile. Because the soil is acidic and tends to quickly drain
minerals, it must be heavily fertilized to permit intensive cultivation.
| E | Plants and Animals |
In ancient times Denmark was heavily
forested. Relatively little wild vegetation remains in Denmark because so much
of the land is urbanized or under cultivation. The forests, which cover just
11.6 percent of the country, include conifers (mainly fir, spruce, larch, and
pine), beech, oak, birch, and ash. Several varieties of ferns and mosses common
to the northern European mainland are also found. Wild animals are scarce.
Natural animal life is limited to deer and small animals such as foxes,
squirrels, hares, wild ducks, pheasants, and partridges. Numerous species of
freshwater fish live in Denmark’s streams and lakes.
| F | Environmental Issues |
Considered highly advanced in
environmental planning and world environmental activism, Denmark is a leader in
pollution control and was the first industrialized country to establish a
ministry of the environment. Denmark recognizes most of its protected areas as
special zones rather than setting them aside as parks and reserves. Commercial
activity is strictly regulated to preserve natural and historical value of the
landscape. About one-third of the country falls into these protected zones.
Virtually all of the nation’s sewage is
treated, and sulfur dioxide emissions—a source of acid rain—were significantly
reduced during the 1990s. Nevertheless, challenging problems remain to be
solved. Agricultural runoff, which contains high levels of fertilizers, has
caused harmful algal blooms (see algae) in the North Sea and increasingly
contaminates drinking water supplies.
Denmark has ratified an international
convention on wetlands and protects many designated sites. There is an immense
tundra reserve in northeastern Greenland, a Danish dependency. Other
international environmental agreements ratified include those pertaining to air
pollution, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, hazardous wastes,
marine dumping, marine life, the ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber,
and whaling. Regionally, Denmark is party to agreements to protect terrestrial
and marine habitats.
| III | PEOPLE |
Ethnically, the majority of Danes are of
Scandinavian descent. The Scandinavians are a Germanic people who have occupied
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark since pre-Viking times. The languages of the three
countries are closely related. A small German-speaking minority lives in
southern Jutland near the border with Germany. A largely Inuit population
inhabits the Danish territory of Greenland, and the Faroe Islands have a Nordic
population, the descendents of Viking colonizers. About 6 percent of Denmark’s
people are classified as immigrants.
| A | Population Characteristics |
Denmark is heavily urbanized, with 86
percent of the Danish population living in urban areas. The population of
Denmark proper is 5,484,723 (2008 estimate), giving the country an overall
population density of 129 persons per sq km (335 per sq mi).
| B | Principal Cities |
Copenhagen is the capital and by far the
largest city in Denmark, with a population of 501,158 (2006 estimate). About
one-quarter of all Danes live in Copenhagen and its surrounding suburbs.
Copenhagen is Denmark’s major port and is the leading commercial, social, and
cultural center. Most of Copenhagen spreads out on the eastern coast of Sjælland
Island. A smaller section of the city lies on Amager, an island east of
Sjælland; bridges connect sections of the city. The city was founded in the 12th
century and has served as Denmark’s capital since 1443.
Århus, Denmark’s second largest city, had
a population of 222,559 in 2003. Århus is a seaport and commercial center on the
east coast of Jutland. Home to Århus University, the city is the cultural center
of Jutland and is noted for its lively music scene and nightlife. Odense, on the
island of Fyn, is a port and industrial city with a population of 145,374 (2003
estimate). It dates from the 10th century and is famed as the birthplace of the
Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen. Ålborg, a port on the Limfjorden, is the
commercial center of northern Denmark, with a population of 121,100 (2003
estimate).
| C | Religion |
The Evangelical Lutheran Church, a
Protestant denomination, is Denmark’s national church. Nearly 90 percent of
Danes are affiliated with the church. Due to accelerating immigration in the
late 20th century, Islam is now the second largest religion in Denmark. The
nation is also home to a small Roman Catholic minority. By law toleration is
extended to all religions.
| D | Language |
Danish is the official language. See
Danish Language. Many Danes also speak a second language, especially
English, which is a required school subject.
| E | Education |
Organized institutional education in
Denmark had its beginnings in the latter part of the 11th century, with the
founding of cathedral schools under church auspices and grammar schools. The
University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479. Throughout the early modern period
the educational system was administered in conjunction with the established
church. Religious instruction was required in all the state schools. In 1739,
under the influence of teacher and dramatist Ludvig Holberg, the Danish language
replaced Latin as the language of instruction. An important experiment at Sorø
by German educational reformer Johann Bernhard Basedow introduced nature study
and handicrafts into the school curriculum.
In the mid-19th century, the first
program of adult education was initiated in Denmark at the Folk High School in
Rødding, Jutland. Under the leadership of Bishop Nicolai Frederick Severin
Grundtvig and Kristen Kold, the school became a model for similar institutions
in Europe and the United States. Franz Nachtegall founded the Danish system of
gymnastics, which was considered useful for military training, and in 1804 he
was appointed the first director of Denmark’s influential Military Gymnastic
Institute. The International People’s College, founded in 1921 at Helsingør,
also had a far-reaching influence. The college introduced programs of study for
people of different cultural and ethnic backgrounds as a way to promote better
understanding among the world’s nations. Recent trends in Danish education have
included the extension of higher education and the raising of the level of
teacher training.
Elementary education has been compulsory
since 1814. All children must attend school from age 7 to 16. Students may
attend either private schools or free public schools. Primary education consists
of a nine-year comprehensive school. All students may continue school through a
tenth year of studies, and talented students are encouraged to continue their
education beyond that point. Denmark’s adult literacy rate is 99 percent.
| E1 | Specialized Schools |
Denmark is home to hundreds of folk
high schools, agricultural schools, and vocational schools. The well-regarded
folk high schools are a distinctive Danish contribution to education. They are
designed primarily for people over the age of 18 and offer many opportunities
for further education through lectures and seminar discussions. No exams or
degrees are given. Many of the schools are private, but the state contributes to
their support regardless of their religious, political, or ethnic
orientations.
| E2 | Universities and Colleges |
Among the universities in Denmark are
Ålborg University (1974), Århus University (1928), the University of Copenhagen,
the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (1856), and the Technical
University of Denmark (1829), all in Copenhagen; Odense University (1964); and
Roskilde University (1972). Other institutions include the Århus School of
Architecture (1965), the Copenhagen Business School (1917), and the Royal Danish
Conservatory of Music (1867) and Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (1754).
| F | Libraries and Museums |
All major cities and most towns have
public libraries, with some 50 million volumes on the shelves. The Royal Library
in Copenhagen, founded in 1673, serves as the national library of Denmark. It
contains collections of music, manuscripts, maps, and pictures. Among the
collections are 5,000 incunabula, books printed before the year
1501.
Denmark is home to more than two dozen
major museums, many within or near Copenhagen. Among the most important is the
Museum of National History at Frederiksborg Castle, in Hillerød. Built in the
early 17th century on an artificial island north of Copenhagen, it boasts finely
manicured gardens and contains some 10,000 exhibits. The Rosenborg Castle in
Copenhagen, also a 17th-century building, holds a collection of weapons,
apparel, and furniture, as well as the crown jewels. The Thorvaldsens Museum in
Copenhagen contains the works of famous 19th-century Danish sculptor Bertel
Thorvaldsen.
The National Museum in Copenhagen
displays Denmark’s archaeological treasures, including the famous Gundestrup
Cauldron, in an excellent collection of prehistoric and Viking-age artifacts
(see Viking Art); important satellite museums include the Viking Ship
Museum in Roskilde and the open-air museum in Århus, in which visitors can tour
a reconstructed provincial town. The Louisiana Museum north of Copenhagen holds
a collection of modern art, as does the North Jutland Art Museum in Ålborg. The
Silkeborg Museum in central Jutland displays the famous Tollund man, a
2000-year-old natural mummy found in a bog.
| G | Culture |
Denmark has won international renown for
its many contributions to modern intellectual and cultural life. Danish culture
draws inspiration largely from modern European influences and local folk
tradition. The influence of Denmark’s folk heritage can be seen in its fine
handicrafts, including beautifully designed ceramics and porcelain, silverware,
and home furnishings. Copenhagen has a permanent exhibition of arts and crafts
where artisans from all over the country may display and sell their work. The
European—and increasingly global—influences in Danish culture can be seen in
modern trends in music, architecture, cinema, sculpture, and literature.
In many fields of research the Danes have
a long tradition of scholarship and discovery. The observations and careful
measurements of Tycho Brahe helped open the way for the development of modern
astronomy. Danes such as Rasmus Rask and Vilhelm Thomsen made important advances
in linguistics and philology. The brilliant Niels Bohr made major discoveries in
the field of nuclear physics, and Niels Finsen studied the medical and
therapeutic uses of light; both men received Nobel prizes for their pioneering
work.
| G1 | The Visual Arts |
Numerous Danish architects and
designers have achieved worldwide fame. Modern Danish architecture is
exemplified by the works of Kay Fisker, Hack Kampmann, Aage Rafn, Arne Jacobsen,
and Povl Baumann with their designs for Århus University, the Copenhagen Police
Building, many modern apartment houses, and the headquarters of the Danish
Broadcasting Company. The Danish architect Jørn Utzon, best known for designing
the magnificent Sydney Opera House in Australia, produced numerous influential
public works in the modern style. Many Danish designers have worked for
specialized industries, especially in ceramics, silver work, and furniture,
bringing artistic beauty and functionality to many commercial products.
In recent decades, Danish cinema has
won growing international acclaim. Perhaps the most famous Danish film director
is Carl Dreyer, who directed such influential masterpieces as La Passion de
Jeanne d’Arc (The Passion of Joan of Arc, 1928). Other well-known
Danish film directors include Gabriel Axel, whose film Babette’s Feast
(1987) won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Film; Bille August, whose Pelle
the Conqueror (1988) also won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Film; and
Lars von Trier, whose Breaking the Waves won the Grand Jury Prize at the
Cannes Film Festival in 1996. In 2000, von Trier’s film Dancer in the
Dark captured the Palme d’Or (Golden Palm) award as the best film at the
Cannes Film Festival. A strong willingness to experiment with new techniques has
pushed Danish filmmakers to the vanguard of modern cinema.
| H | Literature |
Literature is a vital part of Danish
culture, and many of the country’s writers are known worldwide. Ludvig Holberg
is often acknowledged as the literary father of Denmark; his poetry and drama
pioneered the wide acceptance of the Danish language. Hans Christian Andersen, a
19th-century Danish writer, is best known for his fairy tales, which are
considered classics of children’s literature. Another influential 19th-century
thinker and writer is Danish religious philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. Novelists
Henrik Pontoppidan and Johannes V. Jensen were each awarded the Nobel Prize in
literature in the first half of the 20th century. Isak Dinesen (Karen Blixen),
Martin A. Hansen, and Peter Høeg are among the more recent Danish writers who
have also achieved widespread acclaim. See Danish Literature.
| I | Music and the Performing Arts |
Modern Danish musicians have been deeply
influenced by earlier Danish composers such as Carl August Nielsen, Finn
Høffding, Ebbe Hamerik, and Niels Viggo Bentzon. Nielson conducted the Royal
Society and the Music Society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He
wrote more than 100 operas, symphonies, and music scores for piano, violin, and
string quartet. Among the most famous Danish composers of the late 20th and
early 21st centuries are Hans Abrahamsen and Per Noergaard. The much-beloved
Danish pianist and entertainer Victor Borge emigrated to the United States
during World War II.
The two major symphony orchestras of
Denmark are the Royal Danish Symphony Orchestra and the State Radio Orchestra.
Both orchestras are known for their willingness to perform new compositions by
younger artists.
Perhaps Denmark’s most famous playwright
is the 18th-century satirist Ludvig Holberg. Kaj Munk, a Danish dramatist and
clergyman, wrote dramas that were widely popular in the 1930s. He was executed
by Germans during World War II for his opposition to the Nazi regime (see
National Socialism). The Royal Theater in Copenhagen presents drama, opera,
and ballet under the auspices of Denmark’s ministry of cultural affairs. The
Royal Theater was founded in 1748, and an annex, the New Stage, was opened in
1931.
The Royal Danish Ballet has had an
excellent reputation since the 18th century, perhaps reaching its height in the
19th century under Auguste Bournonville. The Royal Danish Ballet still
specializes in Bournonville’s works. Danish ballet dancers also perform
regularly in the United States. Perhaps the best-known is Peter Martins, a
Danish dancer who heads the New York City Ballet.
| IV | ECONOMY |
Once dependent on agriculture, Denmark today
is a highly industrialized country. The Danes enjoy one of the world’s highest
standards of living. Denmark’s prosperity is largely the result of the Danish
peoples’ ability to adapt to changing economic conditions. The Danes have
concentrated on producing high-quality manufactured goods, including machinery
and metals, furniture, and food products, and providing services—especially
banking and finance, insurance, transportation, and tourism. Because Denmark’s
economy depends heavily on imported raw materials and exports of finished goods,
the nation promotes a liberal trade policy. Foreign trade accounts for about
two-thirds of Denmark’s gross domestic product (GDP). Denmark’s GDP in 2006 was
$275.4 billion.
In 1973 Denmark joined the European Economic
Community (EEC), a predecessor of the European Union (EU). Denmark conducts
about two-thirds of its trade with other EU member nations. However, Denmark has
been a somewhat skeptical member of the EU, viewing membership as a potential
threat to aspects of Danish sovereignty. In 1992 Danish voters narrowly rejected
the Maastricht Treaty (or Treaty on European Union) in a national referendum but
later accepted it with reservations. With its fundamentally strong economy and
stable currency, Denmark qualified to participate in the European Monetary Union
(EMU) and adopt the EU’s common currency, the euro, when it was
introduced in 1999. Danish voters decisively rejected EMU in a 2000 national
referendum, however, choosing to retain the national currency, the Danish
krone (or crown). Since then, popular support for EMU appears to
be growing stronger.
| A | Agriculture |
Although large areas of western Jutland
are unsuited for agriculture, and the soils of the rest of the land are
generally of only average fertility, nearly 55 percent of Denmark’s land is
under cultivation. Danish farmers have shown extraordinary resourcefulness in
adapting the land for crops, through heavy use of fertilizers and intensive
scientific farming practices. Most Danish farms are in Jutland. Fewer than 3
percent of Denmark’s population work as farmers.
The principal agricultural activities are
hog farming and dairy farming. The Danes have an old saying that “the pig hangs
on the cow’s tail.” This means that after the cream has been removed from the
cow’s milk and made into dairy products, the remaining skim milk and whey are
fed to pigs. Denmark is a major exporter of live pigs and pork products,
including bacon and ham, as well as dairy products such as butter and cheese.
Throughout the 1990s, demand for organic dairy products significantly expanded;
today, nearly one-third of dairy products are produced according to organic
principles.
Crops are raised mainly for livestock
feed, with limited production of food crops for human consumption. The major
crops are wheat, barley, corn, and other grains, and potatoes, beets, and other
root crops. Vegetables, including cabbage, peas, carrots, onions, and leeks, are
produced mainly for local consumption.
For many years, the Danish government
favored small landholdings, and the merger of small holdings to form large
estates was discouraged by law. However, legislation passed in 1989 legalized
the formation of larger farms. In 1970 the average farm was 22 hectares (54
acres). Today, the average size is 55 hectares (136 acres).
A notable feature of agriculture in
Denmark is the influence of the cooperative movement. Cooperative associations
dominate the production of dairy and pork products. Much of the nation’s
agricultural produce is sold through marketing cooperatives. Most cooperatives
are organized in national associations, which are members of the Danish
Agricultural Council, the central agency for the cooperatives in dealings with
the government and industry and in foreign trade.
| B | Fishing |
Denmark’s large fishing fleet plays a
significant role in the economy. The fleet is modern and efficient. However,
since the early 1980s, the catch gradually declined, the result of overfishing
and the effects of North Sea pollution. The total catch in 2005 was 0.9 million
metric tons, almost all of which were marine fish. The most important fish
caught are herring, plaice, and cod.
| C | Mining |
Denmark heavily exploits its known natural
resources, the most valuable of which are the natural gas and petroleum reserves
discovered in Denmark’s sector of the North Sea in the mid-1960s; mining of the
reserves began in the early 1970s. The output of crude oil was 137 million
barrels in 2004. Kaolin is found on the island of Bornholm, but the deposits are
not of high quality, and it is used chiefly in the manufacture of coarse
earthenware and brick. Other minerals produced commercially include limonite,
lignite, limestone, chalk, and marl. By the late 1980s, it was established that
sand reserves in Jutland held deposits of titanium, zircon, and yttrium.
| D | Manufacturing |
Denmark is home to a great variety of
manufacturing enterprises, which are widely dispersed across the country. The
most important manufacturing industries include food products (especially pork
and dairy products); machinery; appliances, such as televisions and
refrigerators; iron, steel, and other metals; chemicals and pharmaceuticals;
windmills and windmill technology; and furniture, which has been in high demand
since the 1920s.
Denmark is well-known for its production
of high-quality agricultural machinery, including beet harvesters and milking
machines. Among the most famous Danish manufactured products are the plastic toy
building blocks made by LEGO that are popular throughout the world. Taken
together, Danish industry produces about one-quarter of the nation’s annual
GDP.
| E | Energy |
Because Denmark lacks coal reserves and
its low terrain offers little waterpower potential, the nation had to import
almost all of its energy before 1980. In 1966 petroleum and natural gas reserves
were discovered beneath the Danish sector of the North Sea. Production began in
1972. By 1996 Denmark had achieved energy self-sufficiency. Today, Denmark is a
net exporter of energy. The offshore petroleum and natural gas industry operates
out of Esbjerg in western Jutland. Most of Denmark’s electricity is produced in
thermal plants using domestically produced fossil fuels, as well as some
imported coal. Production in 2003 was 43.3 billion kilowatt-hours.
Denmark supports the development of
renewable energy sources, including solar power, wind power, waste incineration,
and biofuel generation. Thousands of state-of-the-art windmills dot the Danish
landscape. Taken together, renewable energy accounts for 18.4 percent of
Denmark’s electricity generation. In 1985 Denmark passed legislation banning the
construction of nuclear power plants in the country (see Nuclear Energy).
| F | Services |
As in most developed nations, the service
sector, backed by a sound educational system, has grown into the dominant force
of Denmark’s economy. In 2006 services accounted for about 72.4 percent of
Denmark’s GDP. Public administration accounts for about one-third of all
services. Private services include banking and finance, insurance,
transportation and communications, and the important tourism industry.
Visitors to Denmark enjoy the nation’s
great wealth of cultural activity, from its world-class museums to its
impressive medieval castles. In Copenhagen, many visitors are attracted to the
Strøget, said to be the world’s longest pedestrian shopping street, and to the
famed Tivoli Gardens, an amusement park with cafes, pavilions, and manicured
gardens. One of Denmark’s most famous attractions is LEGOLAND, a park in Billund
in central Jutland. The 10-hectare (25-acre) theme park features elaborate
models of miniature towns, including Copenhagen and London, constructed from
tens of millions of LEGO toy building blocks.
| G | Transportation |
The sea separates Denmark’s lands, so
ships are vital for passenger and freight traffic, both within and beyond the
country. Ferries link Jutland with the islands in the Baltic Sea, the Baltic
islands with one another, and both Jutland and the Baltic islands with Germany,
Sweden, and Norway. In addition, bridges link many of the islands. In 1998 a
suspension bridge linking the islands of Fyn and Sjælland opened to traffic. Two
years later a 16-km (10-mi) bridge and tunnel opened connecting Copenhagen with
the Swedish city of Malmö. The link, called the Øresundsbron (Øresund Bridge),
makes it possible to travel between the two countries in 15 minutes. Bicycles
are a popular form of transportation throughout the country.
Denmark has 2,212 km (1,374 mi) of
operated railroad track, more than 80 percent of which is part of the Danish
State Railways system. The main rail route leads south through Jutland to
Hamburg, Germany. Motor vehicle traffic runs on 71,847 km (44,644 mi) of roads.
Danish Airlines is part of the Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS). Danair
provides domestic air service. The international airport is at Kastrup, near
Copenhagen.
| H | Communications |
The government telephone service operates
long-distance lines, but many of the local services in Denmark are operated by
private companies. Radio and television programs are produced by the state-owned
Radio Denmark, which operates two television networks and national and regional
radio stations. Programs on these channels are commercial-free, and are
supported by licensing fees from set owners. TV2, a national public service
television station, receives some government funding. In 2003 two commercial
television stations began broadcasting and quickly attracted significant
audiences. Danish law protects freedom of expression, and Denmark’s numerous
newspapers and periodicals reflect a wide variety of political viewpoints.
| V | GOVERNMENT |
Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, and
succession to the throne is hereditary. Queen Margrethe II succeeded to the
throne on the death of her father, Frederick IX, in 1972. Denmark is governed
under a constitution adopted in 1953, which included a provision that for the
first time permitted women to inherit the throne. All Danish citizens 18 years
of age or older are permitted to vote.
| A | Executive |
National executive power is ceremonially
vested in the Danish monarch, but the real executive authority is vested in the
prime minister. The prime minister, who represents the political party or
parties that hold a majority in the Danish parliament, is formally appointed by
the monarch. The prime minister heads a council of ministers, or cabinet, which
administers the various departments of government. The prime minister must
resign or call new elections if the government receives a vote of no confidence
to form the parliament.
| B | Legislature |
Denmark’s unicameral (single-house)
parliament is called the Folketing. Legislative power is held jointly by
the monarch and the Folketing. The approval of the monarch and the Folketing is
necessary to enact legislation, declare war, or sign treaties. Members of the
Folketing serve a term of four years, but the monarch has the power to dissolve
the Folketing at any time. The 179 members are popularly elected; the Faroe
Islands and Greenland are represented by two members each. Elections are
conducted chiefly on the basis of proportional representation.
Measures approved by the Folketing may be
submitted to a popular referendum with the consent of one-third of the members;
if at least 30 percent of the eligible voters disapprove the measure, it is
defeated.
| C | Judiciary |
Judicial power in Denmark is vested in 82
lower courts presided over by individual judges. There are two high courts, each
with a panel of judges, and a supreme court, which sits in Copenhagen.
| D | Local Government |
For administrative purposes, Denmark is
divided into the borough of Frederiksberg, the city of Copenhagen, and 14
counties: Århus, Bornholm, Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Fyn, Nordjylland, Ribe,
Ringkøbing, Roskilde, Sønderjylland, Storstrøm, Vejle, Vestsjælland, and
Viborg.
District councils of between 7 and 31
members, headed by elected mayors, administer the 275 municipalities of Denmark.
The city of Copenhagen is administered by a 55-member city council and by a
smaller executive body. County councils headed by mayors administer the 14
counties. The ministry of interior supervises the counties, the city of
Copenhagen, and the borough of Frederiksberg. Local committees supervise the
municipalities.
| E | Political Parties |
The most significant political parties in
Denmark include the center-right Liberal Party; the right-wing Conservative
People’s Party and Danish People’s Party; the center-left Social Democratic
Party; the left-wing Socialist Party; and the Radical Left (also called the
Danish Social Liberal Party). The New Alliance, formed in 2007 as the country’s
first significant new party in a decade, represented a centrist position between
the two polarized positions to the right and left in Denmark.
| F | Health and Welfare |
Denmark’s social welfare system dates from
the 1890s, and today it is one of the world’s most comprehensive. Health
insurance, covering all of the Danish population, provides free medical care and
hospitalization, payment for some essential medicines, and some dental care.
Most hospitals are municipal. All persons are entitled to a retirement pension.
Other benefits include employment injuries insurance; unemployment insurance;
social assistance for the aged, blind, and disabled; and provisions for the care
of children, including daytime care for children.
| G | Defense |
Denmark abandoned its neutrality after
World War II (1939-1945), and in 1949 became a founding member of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Yet Denmark remained somewhat ambivalent
toward NATO for many years. In the 1990s, Denmark began taking a more active
stance, including sending military personnel to the Persian Gulf War
(1990-1991), the Balkan Peninsula during the Wars of Yugoslav Succession (fought
mainly between 1991 and 1995), and voicing support for military cooperation in
Eastern Europe and the Baltic states.
Every male citizen from the ages of 19 to
25, except citizens of Greenland and the Faroe Islands, may be conscripted for
four months of military service. In 2004 the army maintained a strength of
12,500 soldiers. The navy includes a small fleet and a coast-defense force and
has 3,800 members. The Royal Danish Air Force, with 4,200 members, is tactically
under NATO command. Each service has a volunteer home guard. The volunteer home
guard comprises about 64,000 members.
| VI | HISTORY |
People have lived on the Jutland Peninsula
for thousands of years, since shortly after the last ice age ended about 10,000
years ago. The earliest inhabitants were nomadic hunters and gatherers. By about
3000 BC, a farming people inhabited parts of the peninsula. They were replaced
by warriors from the south about 2000 BC. By the 1st century AD, small farming
villages had been reestablished on Jutland. In the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who then inhabited parts of Denmark and northern
Germany, invaded England.
| A | Age of the Vikings |
The Vikings were Scandinavian
warrior-sailors who dominated the seas of Europe from about the 9th century to
the 11th century. They were excellent shipbuilders and the finest seafarers of
their age. As both plunderers and traders, they were known from Russia to
Iceland and from the British Isles to the shores of the Black Sea. The Vikings
originally lived along the shores of Denmark and Norway. By the 10th century
they had established settlements in eastern England and in Normandy, in northern
France (see Normans). They had also ventured east across the Atlantic
Ocean to Iceland, Greenland, and even North America. By the middle of the 10th
century, Denmark had become a united kingdom under King Harold Bluetooth.
Harold Bluetooth had forsaken paganism for
Christianity, and he initiated the Christianization of the Danes. Harold’s son,
Sweyn I, conquered all of England in 1013 and 1014. During the reign of Sweyn’s
son, Canute II, the Danish realm expanded to include Norway. The unified
kingdom, which also included part of southern Sweden, declined after Canute’s
death in 1035, and by 1042 Denmark’s union with England and Norway had been
dissolved. For the next century, Denmark was torn by civil wars and outbreaks of
violence.
| B | Expansion and Prosperity |
In the late 12th and early 13th centuries,
the Danes expanded to the east. They conquered the greater part of the southern
coastal areas of the Baltic Sea, establishing a powerful and prosperous realm
twice the size of modern Denmark. In this era of expansion, feudalism in Denmark
attained its zenith. The kingdom became wealthier and more powerful than it had
ever been. Most of the country’s once-free peasantry saw their rights reduced.
The era saw marked economic progress, principally in the development of the
herring-fishing industry and in raising livestock. This progress promoted the
rise of merchants and craftsmen and of a number of guilds.
Growing discord between the Danish crown
and the nobility led to a struggle in which the nobility, in 1282, compelled
King Eric V to sign a charter, sometimes referred to as the Danish Magna Carta.
By the terms of this charter, the Danish crown was subordinated to law, and the
assembly of lords, called the Danehof, became an integral part of the
administrative institutions.
A temporary decline in Danish power after
the death of Christopher II in 1332 was followed, in the reign of Waldemar IV,
by the reestablishment of Denmark as the leading political power on the Baltic
Sea. However, the Hanseatic League, a commercial federation of European cities,
controlled trade.
| C | The Kalmar Union |
In 1380 Denmark and Norway were joined in
a union under one king, Oluf III (called Olaf IV in Norway), a grandson of
Waldemar IV. With Norway came the possessions of Iceland and the Faroe Islands.
After Oluf’s death in 1387, his mother, Margaret I, reigned in his place. In
1389 she obtained the crown of Sweden and began the struggle, completed
successfully in 1397, to form the Union of Kalmar, a political union of the
three realms. Denmark was the dominant power, but Swedish aristocrats strove
repeatedly—and with some success—for Sweden’s autonomy within the union.
The Kalmar Union lasted until 1523, when
Sweden won its independence in a revolt against the tyrannical Christian II. The
revolt leader, Gustav Vasa, was elected king of Sweden as Gustav I shortly
afterward. A period of unrest followed as Lübeck, the strongest Hanseatic city,
interfered in Danish politics. With help from Sweden’s king, Lübeck’s
interference ended and Christian III consolidated his power as king of
Denmark.
| D | The Reformation Period |
During Christian III’s reign (1534-1559)
the Protestant Reformation triumphed in Denmark, and the Lutheran church was
established as the state church. At this time the Danish kings began to treat
Norway as a province rather than as a separate kingdom. Denmark’s commercial and
political rivalry with Sweden for domination of the Baltic Sea intensified. From
1563 to 1570 Sweden and Denmark fought the indecisive Nordic Seven Years’ War
and later, the War of Kalmar (1611-1613).
The intervention of Christian IV in the
religious struggle in Germany on behalf of the Protestant cause in the 1620s led
to Danish participation in the Thirty Years’ War. Continued rivalry with Sweden
for primacy in the north led to the Swedish Wars of 1643 to 1645 and 1657 to
1660. Denmark was badly defeated and lost several of its Baltic islands and all
of its territory on the Scandinavian Peninsula except Norway.
| E | Absolute Monarchy |
Economic reverses resulting from these
defeats had far-reaching consequences in Denmark. The growing commercial class,
hard hit by the loss of foreign markets and trade, joined with the monarchy to
curtail the power and privileges of the nobility. In 1660, capitalizing on the
nobility’s unpopularity after its poor military performance in the Swedish Wars,
Frederick III carried out a coup d’état against the aristocratic Council of the
Realm. The monarchy, which until then had been largely dependent for its
political power on the aristocracy, was made hereditary, and in 1661 it became
absolute. The monarchy ended the tax-exemption privileges of the nobility, and
nobles were replaced by commoners as local administrators.
In the 18th century Denmark began the
colonization of Greenland. Danish trade in East Asia expanded, and trading
companies were established in the Caribbean Sea in the Virgin Islands (see
Virgin Islands of the United States). In 1788 the Danish crown abolished
constraints on the liberties of the peasants, and in the following decades an
agricultural enclosure movement greatly enhanced the production of livestock and
crops.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815),
efforts by England to blockade the European continent led to naval clashes with
Denmark. Copenhagen was twice bombarded by British fleets, first in 1801 and
again in 1807, and the Danish navy was destroyed. As a result, Denmark was
largely cut off from Norway. The Danish monarch reluctantly sided with French
emperor Napoleon I. By the Peace of Kiel (1814) Denmark ceded the island of
Helgoland to the British and gave Norway to Sweden. In return, Denmark obtained
Swedish Pomerania (see Pomerania), which it later exchanged for
Lauenburg, previously held by Prussia.
| F | Constitutional Monarchy |
A growing demand for constitutional
government in Denmark led to the proclamation of the constitution of 1849.
Denmark became a constitutional monarchy, in which civil liberties were
guaranteed and a bicameral (two-chamber) legislature was established to share
legislative power with the Crown. German nationalism in Schleswig and Holstein
(see Schleswig-Holstein), both hereditary duchies held by the kings of
Denmark, presented the Danes with serious problems in the wake of the
Revolutions of 1848. The two duchies had long been objects of dispute between
Danish kings and German monarchs. With diplomatic aid from Russia, Denmark
prevailed in a first test of strength in mid-century, but in 1864 Prussia and
Austria went to war with the Danes to prevent incorporation of Schleswig into
Denmark’s territory and constitutional structure. The Danes were defeated and
lost possession of the two duchies and of other territory.
In 1866 the Danish constitution was
revised, making the upper chamber (Landsting) more powerful than the lower house
(Folketing). During the last decades of the 19th century, commerce, industry,
and finance flourished. Dairy farming and the cooperative movement expanded, and
the working class grew in size as industry expanded. After 1880 the newly
organized Social Democratic party played a major role in the Danish labor
movement and in the struggle for a more democratic constitution. The principle
of parliamentary government was recognized in 1901, ending a long political
deadlock between the Crown and the Landsting on one side and democratic forces
in the Folketing on the other side.
| G | Territorial Changes During the World Wars |
Denmark declared its neutrality during
World War I (1914-1918). In 1917 Denmark sold the Virgin Islands in the
Caribbean Sea to the United States. Constitutional reforms enacted in 1915
established many of the basic features of the present governmental system.
Universal suffrage went into effect in 1918. The same year Denmark recognized
the independence of Iceland, but continued to exercise pro forma control of the
foreign policy of the new state, and the Danish king remained the head of state
in Iceland. In 1920 North Schleswig was incorporated into Denmark as a result of
a plebiscite carried out in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles; the southern part of Schleswig had voted to remain in Germany.
In May 1939 Denmark signed a ten-year
nonaggression pact with Nazi Germany (see National Socialism). Despite
this agreement, in April 1940 Germany invaded and occupied Denmark, although the
Danish government was able to maintain control over much of its legal and
domestic affairs until 1943. The Danish police helped Denmark’s 6,000 Jews to
escape safely to neutral Sweden on the eve of their arrest and deportation. The
United Kingdom occupied the Faroe Islands, and in 1941 the United States
established a temporary protectorate over Greenland, building various weather
stations and air bases on the island. In 1944 Iceland, following a national
referendum, severed all ties with Denmark and proclaimed itself an independent
republic.
| H | International Engagement and Constitutional Reform |
After World War II Denmark became a
charter member of the United Nations (UN) and was one of the original
signatories of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949.
Subsequently Denmark became a member of other international organizations,
including the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Economic
Community (a forerunner of the European Union, or EU).
In 1953 Denmark adopted a revised
constitution. The constitution created a unicameral parliament, permitted female
accession to the throne, and included Greenland as an integral part of Denmark.
Greenland was granted home rule in 1979.
Four decades of dominance by the Social
Democratic party ended with the 1968 elections. Hilmar Baunsgaard, leader of the
Radical Liberal party, formed a coalition government that lasted until 1971,
when Jens Otto Krag, a former Social Democratic prime minister, retained office.
King Frederick IX died in 1972 and was succeeded by his daughter, Margrethe II,
the first queen to reign over Denmark since Margaret I more than five and a half
centuries earlier. Later that year Krag resigned and was replaced as prime
minister and party leader by Anker Jørgensen.
| I | Economic Troubles |
From 1973 to 1984, Denmark was ruled by a
series of weak governments. No single party or group of closely allied parties
held a working majority. During this period, the global economic slowdown
triggered by the 1973 oil crisis hit Denmark sharply. Inflation and trade
deficits increased and unemployment, which had virtually disappeared in the late
1960s, became chronically high. Denmark’s economic slowdown continued throughout
the 1980s and early 1990s.
Liberals and Social Democrats headed the
governments until September 1982, when Poul Schlüter became Denmark’s first
Conservative prime minister in nearly a century. Elections in 1984, 1987, 1988,
and 1990 returned Schlüter’s center-right coalition to office as a minority
government. Under Schlüter, the government instituted a series of austerity
measures to increase economic growth. They included an effort to suppress
inflation by not indexing wages to the cost of living and imposing modest wage
settlements when collective bargaining failed.
| J | Foreign Policy Shifts |
Although the Schlüter coalition enjoyed
solid support for its domestic reforms, the government’s foreign policy remained
controversial. The revival of the Cold War in Europe in 1979 disappointed many
Danes. The Social Democrats challenged Denmark’s national security policies,
putting forward an agenda that was anti-NATO, pacifistic, skeptical of military
confrontation in Europe, and strongly anti-nuclear. In 1985 the Folketing passed
legislation barring future construction of nuclear power plants in the country,
and the government agreed to help establish a Nordic nuclear-free zone.
The dramatic end of the Cold War and the
collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe after 1989 changed the
Danish foreign policy agenda. Denmark demonstrated a new international activism
through modest participation in the Persian Gulf War (1990-1991), active
encouragement and support for the newly independent Baltic states, and support
for the rapid integration of the former communist states into a democratic and
capitalist Europe. Denmark sent significant military forces for peacekeeping in
the Balkan Peninsula during the breakup of the former Yugoslavia (Wars of
Yugoslav Succession).
During this period, however, the Danes
themselves demonstrated skepticism regarding European integration. In 1992
Danish voters narrowly rejected the Maastricht Treaty, which provided for
increased political and monetary integration within the European Community (now
the European Union). After modifications to the pact that promised exemptions
from certain standards for Denmark—including the right not to participate in a
common European defense force or to adopt the EU’s common currency, the
euro—the Danes voted their approval in May 1993.
| K | Growing Tensions Over Immigration |
In the wake of a scandal over immigration
visas, Prime Minister Schlüter abruptly resigned in January 1993. The scandal
demonstrated a deeper change among the Danish people, for centuries an
ethnically homogenous society. During the 1990s, a soaring number of refugees,
especially from lands of the former Yugoslavia, the Middle East, and South Asia,
fueled high levels of immigration in Denmark. Efforts by the Schlüter government
to prevent political refugees from Sri Lanka from joining their families already
in Denmark led to a scandal of historic proportions. The government’s illegal
administrative measures forced Schlüter’s resignation and shone a spotlight on
emergent social tensions within Denmark.
After Schlüter stepped down, a new
majority coalition government was formed, with Social Democrat Poul Nyrup
Rasmussen as prime minister—the first majority coalition government since 1971.
In elections held in September 1994, the coalition headed by Rasmussen retained
power, but it lost its majority in the Folketing. After shuffling his coalition
slightly, Rasmussen was returned to office once again in 1998 with a majority of
just one seat. In September 1999 Rasmussen issued an official apology to a group
of Greenland Inuit (known as the Inughuit) who were evicted illegally
from their homes and hunting grounds nearly 50 years earlier to allow for the
expansion of a key United States airbase at Thule. The apology followed a ruling
by a Danish court that Denmark’s government had violated Inughuit rights.
| L | Denmark in the 21st Century |
In November 2001, following a surge of
support for his government after the September 11 terrorist attacks on the
United States, the prime minister called a snap election. Despite a high
turnout, however, the Social Democrat-led government was defeated, and the
center-right Liberal Party emerged as Denmark’s largest political party. A
minority coalition government composed of the Liberal Party and the Conservative
People’s Party replaced the Social Democrat-led government. Liberal Party leader
Anders Fogh Rasmussen was named prime minister. The far right, anti-immigration
Danish People’s Party, which became the third largest party in the Folketing,
agreed to support the Liberal-Conservative coalition.
As prime minister, Rasmussen vowed to
halt the growth of taxes while maintaining the nation’s social welfare system.
In 2004 Rasmussen’s government succeeded in pushing through a package of modest
tax cuts. Rasmussen’s government also announced that it would move quickly to
impose new immigration and asylum restrictions, and a new ministry of refugees,
immigration, and integration was created. In July 2002 the government succeeded
in passing the tough new restrictions—among the most stringent in Europe—into
law. By 2004 immigration to Denmark had declined by nearly 80 percent from its
2001 level.
| L1 | Denmark on the World Stage |
During the controversial U.S.-led
military invasion of Iraq beginning in March 2003, Denmark sent two naval
vessels and a small contingent of troops to help oust Iraqi leader Saddam
Hussein (U.S.-Iraq War). The Rasmussen government’s strong support for the
invasion sparked deep divisions within the Danish public; a bare majority of the
Folketing voted in favor of the action. After the ouster of Hussein, Denmark
deployed a peacekeeping force in Iraq. However, allegations that the Danish
government exaggerated the threat posed by Iraq to justify the invasion forced
the resignation of the government’s defense minister, Svend Aage, in April 2004.
Four months later, in August, a scandal broke out over the alleged abuse of
Iraqi prisoners by Danish soldiers.
In 2006 Denmark became the center of an
international controversy after protests began to spread throughout the Islamic
world against cartoons published in September 2005 in Denmark’s
largest-circulation newspaper. The cartoons depicted the prophet Muhammad, the
founder of Islam. Any attempt to depict Muhammad is generally regarded as
blasphemous among Muslims. One cartoon portrayed Muhammad as a terrorist.
Leaders of Denmark’s Muslim community,
which numbers about 200,000, objected when the cartoons were published, saying
it was part of a growing climate of hostility against Muslims in Denmark. The
editor-in-chief of the Danish newspaper apologized for the offense, but a number
of newspapers in Europe and elsewhere reprinted the cartoons as an issue of
freedom of speech and freedom of the press. In response, demonstrations, often
violent, took place throughout the Islamic world. A number of Islamic countries
withdrew their ambassadors from Denmark, and in early February Danish embassies
and consulates were attacked and burned in Lebanon, Syria, and Iran. Many Muslim
leaders also called for boycotts of Danish goods.
| L2 | Recent Elections |
Buoyed by a healthy economy, the
popular curbs on immigration, and a pledge to keep taxes from rising, Prime
Minister Rasmussen scheduled a snap election for February 2005. Despite some
lingering concerns over Denmark’s Iraq policy, Rasmussen and his center-right
coalition secured a second term in office, winning about 54 percent of the
vote.
Rasmussen again called early elections
in late 2007, counting on high approval ratings and a strong economy to give his
government a fresh mandate for additional reforms in the public sector. His
Liberal Party and its coalition allies won 90 seats in the 179-seat Folketing—a
narrow, one-seat majority. The opposition led by the Social Democratic Party
secured 84 seats. The New Alliance, a newly formed party led by a Syrian-born
Muslim, Naser Khader, won 5 seats. It represented a moderate centrist position
between the two polarized extremes in Denmark. Although the party generally
agreed with the Liberal Party on many issues, it supported the relaxation of
immigration laws.
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