I | INTRODUCTION |
Czech
Republic (Ceska Republika in Czech), landlocked country in central
Europe, comprising the historic regions of Bohemia and Moravia and part of
Silesia. For much of the 20th century the Czech Republic was joined with
neighboring Slovakia to form Czechoslovakia, but in 1993 the two split to form
separate countries. Centrally located Prague (Czech Praha) is the Czech
capital and its largest city.
The Czech Republic is surrounded by four
countries: Germany to the west, Poland to the north, Slovakia to the east, and
Austria to the south. Bohemia, a land of rolling hills and plains surrounded by
mountains, makes up the western part of the Czech Republic, while the lowlands
of Moravia are in the east. Silesia, also a lowland region, lies to the north
and stretches into southern Poland.
The country is rich in history and culture.
It is famous for its architecture, including Gothic, Renaissance, and baroque
styles as well as more modern influences; its scenic countryside and ancient
villages and castles; its luxurious spas; and its arts, including the works of
writer Franz Kafka and composer Antonín Dvořák.
From the end of World War II (1939-1945) to
1989, Czechoslovakia was under communist rule and controlled by the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Repressive tactics kept political dissent at
a minimum, although there were attempts by citizens to reform the communist
government. The most notable came in 1968, the so-called Prague Spring, when
Soviet troops invaded the Czech capital to quell the reformist movement.
After decades of nationalization under the
communists, the Czech economy rapidly privatized in the 1990s. It is one of the
most industrialized countries in Europe, with mining, manufacturing, and
construction all important parts of the economy. This industrialization has
resulted in serious environmental problems in many parts of the country,
however.
Traditional Czech products that remain
thriving industries include fine crystal and beer. Tourism is also an important
source of revenue in the Czech Republic. Visitors are especially attracted to
the architectural and historical beauty of Prague, which avoided the heavy
bombing damage many European cities suffered during World War II.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
The Czech Republic is about the size of the
state of South Carolina. The total area of the Czech Republic is 78,864 sq km
(30,450 sq mi). The maximum distance from east to west is about 490 km (about
305 mi), and the maximum distance from north to south is about 280 km (about 175
mi). Mountain ranges bound much of the country.
A | Natural Regions |
The central part of the Czech Republic is
dominated by the elevated plateaus of the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands and the
low plains and rolling hills of the Bohemian Basin. A number of rivers drain
these areas, and much of the country’s farmland is located there.
A number of mountain ranges rise along
the edges of these central regions and extend outward to form much of the
country’s natural borders. The Erzgebirge in the north and the Šumava Mountains
in the west are known for their spas and ski resorts. The Šumava comprise part
of the Böhmerwald (Bohemian Forest), a highland region located in the west and
southwest that forms the country’s border with Germany. The Sudety mountains are
located in the north and form part of the border with Poland. The Sudety range
includes the Krkonoše Mountains, which contain the country’s highest point,
Sněžka (1,603 m/5,259 ft). One of the country’s largest nature reserves is also
located in the Sudety range. Extending along the Czech-Slovak border in the
southeastern part of the country is a section of the Carpathian Mountains. Also
located in the southeast are the Moravian Lowlands, which contain the fertile
valley of the Morava River where a variety of crops are grown.
B | Rivers and Lakes |
The main rivers of the Czech Republic are
the Elbe (known locally as the Labe), the Vltava, the Ohře, the Morava, the
Lužnice, the Jihlava, and the Svratka. The Sázava, Odra (Oder), and Opava rivers
are also important.
C | Plant and Animal Life |
Most of the forest vegetation in the Czech
Republic is evergreen. The main deciduous trees include oak, beech, birch,
poplar, and willow. Wildlife includes rabbit, pheasant, deer, and boar.
Environmental damage has severely reduced the amount of wildlife and damaged
many of the country’s forests.
D | Natural Resources |
The Czech Republic is heavily dependent on
imported energy and raw materials. Large deposits of lignite (a type of coal),
the country’s main domestic source of energy, are found near the cities of
Chomutov, Most, Karlovy Vary, Teplice, and České Budějovice. Hard coal is found
near Ostrava, Plzeň, and Kladno. Sizable uranium deposits and smaller deposits
of mercury, antimony, and tin are located in the Ore Mountains. There are also
small amounts of lead and zinc ore in central Bohemia and iron ore near Prague.
Some 34 percent of the country is forested. The Bohemian Forest is an important
source of lumber.
E | Climate |
The Czech Republic has a humid,
continental climate, with cold winters and warm summers. The average temperature
range in Prague is -5°C (22°F) to 0°C (33°F) in January and 12°C (53°F) to 23°C
(74°F) in July. Temperatures generally decrease with increasing altitude. Prague
receives an average of 530 mm (21 in) of precipitation annually. Rainfall is
generally heaviest during the summer months.
F | Environmental Issues |
The development policies of the communist
era combined with a lack of attention to environmental issues has produced
serious environmental problems in the Czech Republic. Drinking-water supplies
and much of the country’s soils are contaminated with heavy metals and other
industrial and agricultural wastes. Air pollution is a serious problem in many
cities, particularly in the region of northern Bohemia; pollution has also
degraded many of the country’s forests. Aided by outside funding, the
post-communist governments have begun to address the country’s environmental
problems. Recent efforts include the closing of several lignite mines and
stricter enforcement of environmental regulations. Environmental considerations
have also led some government officials to promote nuclear energy as a key
source of power for the country’s future.
The Czech Republic produces most of its
energy by burning domestic coal. Much of the coal burned is low quality with a
high ash and sulfur content—a key component of acid rain—producing high levels
of air pollution. Forests in the Czech Republic are among the most seriously
affected by acid rain in all of Europe. In some areas of the country the nitrate
(see Nitric Acid) content is so high that the water is considered unsafe
for human consumption. See also Water Pollution.
III | PEOPLE |
The Czech people are descended from Slavic
tribes who arrived in Bohemia and Moravia in the 5th century ad. The Czechs—including both Bohemians
and Moravians—are the country’s dominant ethnic group, representing about 94
percent of the population; Slovaks account for about 3 percent; and Poles,
Germans, Roma (Gypsies), and Hungarians account for most of the remainder.
At the time of the 1991 census, the total
population of the Czech Republic was 10,302,215; the 2008 estimate was
10,220,911. The population density, based on the 2008 estimate, was 132 persons
per sq km (343 per sq mi). Some 75 percent of the population lives in urban
areas.
A | Principal Cities |
Prague (population, 2003 estimate,
1,170,000) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the
chief commercial, industrial, and cultural center of the country. A popular
tourist destination, Prague is world-famous for its varied and beautiful
architecture.
Other important cities include Brno
(376,172), an educational and industrial center; Ostrava (316,744), a center for
metallurgical industries; Plzeň (165,259), noted for its breweries; and Olomouc
(102,607), a trade and industrial center.
B | Language |
The official language of the Czech
Republic is Czech, a language of the West Slavic subgroup of Slavic languages.
Moravians speak a form of Czech that differs slightly from the form spoken in
Bohemia. Slovaks speak Slovak, a language closely related to Czech. Members of
other ethnic groups generally speak Czech in addition to their own native
languages.
C | Religion |
The principal religion of the Czech
Republic is Christianity. Approximately 40 percent of the population is Roman
Catholic. Protestant denominations account for about 3 percent of the
population. Many of those who identify as members of religious organizations in
the Czech Republic do not actively practice their religion, and nearly 40
percent of the population claims no religious affiliation at all.
Prior to World War II (1939-1945), the
country had a large Jewish population. Most of the Jews were killed in the
Holocaust, the Nazi campaign to exterminate the Jews of Europe (National
Socialism). There are currently between 15,000 and 18,000 Jews living in the
Czech Republic; the Jewish population is centered in Prague.
D | Education |
Nearly all adults are literate in the
Czech Republic. Education is compulsory from 6 through 15 years of age, when
students attend elementary school. After completion of this stage, most students
continue their education at a general secondary school or a vocational secondary
school, both of which offer four-year programs. Others enter teacher-training
institutes, which require two to four years to complete.
Under communism, all schools were run by
the government. In 1990 the establishment of private and religious schools was
legalized. Although most schools in the Czech Republic are still state
controlled, there are a growing number of private elementary and secondary
schools.
Charles University, located in Prague, is
the most important university in the country. Founded in 1348 by Holy Roman
Emperor Charles IV, it is one of the oldest universities in Europe. Other
important universities include Masaryk University, located in Brno and founded
in 1919, and Palacký University, located in Olomouc, founded in 1573 and
reestablished in 1946. The Central European University also has a branch in
Prague that was founded in 1991.
E | Food and Recreation |
Pork is a staple in the Czech diet, which
resembles that of Germany. Pickled cabbage and sliced, boiled dumplings called
knedlíky are eaten frequently. Open-faced sandwiches and frankfurters are
often served at snack bars. Many Western fast food companies have opened
restaurants in the Czech Republic. Czech beer is known throughout the
world—Budweiser, the world’s bestselling beer, is thought to have originated in
the Czech city of České Budějovice (Budweis in German). Moravians make
and drink wine.
Typical forms of recreation include
visits to the local tavern and watching movies and television. Many Czechs play
or watch soccer, and families often spend weekends at their country houses or
hiking in rural areas. Ballet, opera, theater, and musical performances are
popular among Czechs living in urban areas.
F | Social Problems |
During the communist period, living
standards in Czechoslovakia were among the highest in Eastern Europe. The
reintroduction of a market economy in the early 1990s led to a pronounced
decline in living standards. Subsequent economic growth now permits most people
in the Czech Republic to live comfortably. However, the process of economic
transition has hit certain sectors of the population particularly hard,
including single mothers, the elderly, and adults with low education and skill
levels. The country is plagued by a serious housing shortage.
The Czech Republic suffers from many of
the problems typical of advanced industrial societies. Crime and other social
ills—such as prostitution, drug abuse, alcoholism, and juvenile delinquency—have
worsened since the fall of the communist regime. New problems have also emerged,
including corruption, organized crime, money laundering, smuggling, and the
development of an illegal arms trade. Discrimination against women has become
more open.
Relations among Czechs and Slovaks living
in the Czech Republic are generally friendly. Some attacks on the Roma people by
white-supremacist youths have occurred. The provisions of the Czech Republic’s
citizenship law include stiff requirements that prevent some of the Roma from
qualifying as citizens. Concerns among the Roma, human rights advocates, and the
Council of Europe led to revision of the law.
Illegal immigration and the influx of
refugees have troubled the Czech Republic since the end of communist rule and
the breakup of the USSR. Huge numbers of refugees, principally from the former
Yugoslavia and parts of the former USSR, have passed through the Czech Republic
in recent years on the way to the more economically and politically stable
countries of the West, including Germany.
IV | CULTURE |
Prague was a major European cultural center
prior to the communist era, and the Czech people have made numerous and
significant contributions to art, literature, and music.
A | Literature |
The foundations of Czech literature date
back as far as the 9th century but really gained strength during the awakening
of national identity that occurred in the 19th century. Well-known Czech authors
of the 20th century include Franz Kafka, Jaroslav Hašek, and Karel Čapek. More
contemporary writers include poet Jaroslav Seifert, who won the Nobel Prize in
literature in 1984; novelist and critic Milan Kundera; and playwright Václav
Havel. Havel became Czechoslovakia’s president following the collapse of
Communism in 1989 and, after resigning in 1992 amid the political squabbles that
led to Czechoslovakia’s split, served as president of the new Czech Republic
from 1993 to 2003.
B | Art and Architecture |
The Czech-French painter and poster
designer Alphonse Mucha, who worked during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, was one of the leading artists of the art nouveau period. František
Kupka, a contemporary of Mucha’s, was an early abstract painter. Both played an
influential role in the development of European art.
There are many fine examples of
architecture in the Czech Republic. Structures dating from the Romanesque,
Gothic, Renaissance, baroque, art nouveau, and socialist realism periods are
scattered throughout Prague and many other cities and towns. Artifacts
associated with the Czech reformation are found in the city of Tábor in southern
Bohemia. The Czech countryside is dotted with approximately 2,500 castles of
various styles.
The Czech Republic has a strong folk
tradition. Popular folk arts include puppet theater and the making of a
blue-and-white painted fabric known as modrotisk. Hand-painted eggs and
glass paintings are other examples of traditional folk arts.
C | Music |
Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, and Leoš
Janáček are the three best-known Czech composers. Smetana, who wrote his major
works in the late 19th century, based much of his music on Czech folk songs and
dances. His famous opera The Bartered Bride (1866) provided a comic
portrayal of Czech national life. Dvořák, a contemporary of Smetana, was a
master of the symphony also known for incorporating Czech folk music into his
works. Janáček, whose career reached its height in the early 20th century, used
the styles of Moravian folk music in the composition of his operas.
D | Libraries and Museums |
The National Library, founded in 1366 as
part of Charles University, is the country’s largest library. The National
Museum in Prague (founded in 1818) is the most important museum. There are also
important libraries and museums located in Brno and Olomouc.
E | Motion Pictures |
Despite the limitations and ideological
controls imposed on Czech cinema by the Nazi and communist governments, Czech
films and film directors gained international recognition in the 20th century.
The New Wave of Czech cinema began in the 1960s, when Miloš Forman, Jiří
Menzel, and other directors made a number of important films that looked
critically at social and political conditions in the country. The Czech film
industry also has a strong tradition in animated and puppet films; among the
most popular are those produced by Jiří Trnka.
V | ECONOMY |
The Czech lands have been traditionally among
the most economically developed regions of Europe. When the communists came to
power in Czechoslovakia in 1948 they created a highly centralized economic
system. Nearly all aspects of economic planning and management came under the
control of the central government. Virtually all of the country’s economic
assets were placed in state hands; economic managers and decision-makers were
cut off from their counterparts in the West; and foreign trade was conducted
almost exclusively with other communist countries. Although the economy remained
strong by Eastern European standards, with one of the highest standards of
living in the communist world, the policies adopted by the communist government
led to long-term economic decline in Czechoslovakia. After the collapse of
communism in 1989, the new leaders of Czechoslovakia had to deal with this
legacy.
In the early 1990s the post-communist
government moved quickly to convert the economy to a system based on free
enterprise. A number of reform measures were adopted, including a voucher
privatization plan, which gave citizens, for a low administrative fee, coupons
that could later be traded for stock in companies. The voucher plan successfully
transferred large parts of the economy to private ownership, but it did little
to change the structure of the economy. Coupled with widespread corruption,
these structural problems led to economic crises in the Czech Republic later in
the decade.
By the early 21st century the Czech economy
had rebounded to create a solid foundation for growth. In 2006 the GDP had
reached $143 billion. In May 2004 the Czech Republic was among ten new member
countries to formally join the European Union (EU).
The Czech Republic is a member of many other
international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Central European
Free Trade Agreement, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD).
A | Labor |
The unemployment level in the Czech
Republic has remained stable, standing at 8.3 percent in 2004. The service
sector employs 57 percent of the labor force; 40 percent work in manufacturing
and other areas of industry; and 4 percent are employed in agriculture,
forestry, and fishing.
B | Agriculture |
Some 39 percent of land in the Czech
Republic is cultivated. During the communist period, farms were either owned by
the state or administered as cooperatives, in which farmworkers received a share
of the farm’s profits and some of its products. In 1991 legislation was passed
allowing citizens to own their own farms. Due largely to a reduction in state
subsidies, the number of workers employed in agriculture has declined
dramatically since the end of communism. Agriculture plays a relatively small
role in the nation’s export industry.
The principal crops grown in the Czech
Republic are barley, wheat, corn, rye, sugar beets, potatoes, flax, and hops.
Czech farmers also raise sizable numbers of livestock animals, including
poultry, pigs, cattle, and sheep.
C | Mining and Manufacturing |
The principal mineral extracted in the
Czech Republic is coal, particularly lignite. The importance of mining has
decreased since 1989, as stricter environmental regulations have made the mining
of lignite less profitable.
Between 1918 and 1939 Czechoslovakia was
predominantly a producer of light industrial goods, including textiles,
footwear, porcelain, and glass. Under communist rule, these industries became
less important and heavy industry, including metallurgy and mining, was
emphasized. Czechoslovakia became a producer of steel, machinery, and weapons.
Since the collapse of communism in 1989, many inefficient enterprises have been
closed. Heavy industry continues to be important, but a number of traditional
industries have reemerged. The principal manufactured products of the Czech
Republic are woven fabrics, paper, crude steel, pig iron, and footwear; cheese
and beer are important processed foods.
D | Energy |
Due to limited resources, the Czech
Republic must import the bulk of its energy supply. Gas and oil are supplied
mainly by pipelines through Slovakia. In 2003 thermal plants fueled by coal
provided 66 percent of electricity in the Czech Republic; 31.44 percent was
generated by nuclear reactors. Due largely to the problem of air pollution
resulting from the burning of coal, the Czech government is increasing the
country’s use of nuclear energy, although safety concerns continue to be an
issue.
E | Tourism and Foreign Trade |
The tourism industry in the Czech Republic
has grown significantly since the collapse of communism. The country’s numerous
resorts, winter sports facilities, and historic cities and towns are popular
destinations for travelers. Prague has become an international center for
members of the business and financial communities.
Prior to 1989 nearly all of
Czechoslovakia’s foreign trade was conducted with the USSR and other communist
states. By 1992 the country was trading mainly with developed Western nations.
Since the Czech Republic emerged as an independent country in 1993, trade has
remained strongly oriented toward the West. In 2003 imports were valued at $51.2
billion and exports at $48.7 billion. Exports included coal, machinery, steel,
automobiles, footwear, railroad cars, and iron. Imports included energy and raw
materials (especially oil and natural gas), machinery, automobiles, iron and
other ores, telecommunications equipment, and pharmaceuticals. The Czech
Republic’s main trading partners include Germany, Slovakia, Russia, Austria,
Italy, and France.
F | Currency and Banking |
The Czech Republic and Slovakia had agreed
to maintain a common currency when they separated in January 1993, but within a
month the two countries began using separate currencies. The monetary unit of
the Czech Republic is the Czech koruna. The country is expected to
eventually adopt the euro (the monetary unit of European Union
countries), but progress in this effort has been slow.
In the early 1990s the Czechoslovak banking
system shifted from a state-controlled system to one that included private
commercial banks. The country’s central bank is the Czech National Bank, located
in Prague. The Czech stock exchange, also located in Prague, opened in 1993. A
currency crisis in 1997 forced the government to reorganize the banks and
implement tighter monetary controls.
VI | GOVERNMENT |
The Czech Republic adopted a new
constitution creating a parliamentary democracy in 1993. The president of the
country is elected by parliament for a five-year term and may not serve more
than two consecutive terms. The president appoints the prime minister; under the
advice of the prime minister, the president also appoints the members of the
cabinet. The prime minister, who is typically the leader of the party with the
majority of seats in parliament, acts as head of the government.
A | Legislature |
The Czech parliament consists of two
chambers, the Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house).
The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members, elected by popular vote for
four-year terms. The Senate, created in 1995, consists of 81 members elected for
six-year terms; one-third of the Senate’s seats come up for election every two
years. All citizens over the age of 18 are eligible to vote.
B | Judiciary |
The highest court of appeals in the Czech
Republic is the Supreme Court. There is also a Constitutional Court, a Supreme
Administrative Court, and various high, regional, and district courts. Supreme
Court judges are appointed by the president of the republic for unlimited terms.
The president appoints the 15 judges of the Constitutional Court for ten-year
terms. Constitutional Court appointments are subject to approval by the
Senate.
C | Political Parties |
More than 100 political parties were
registered in Czechoslovakia after the communist system collapsed in 1989. Of
the 40 parties that participated in the 1992 elections, 12 won representation in
the federal legislature, and eight were registered in the Czech National
Council, which became the Czech legislature after the breakup of
Czechoslovakia.
Today, the largest parties in the Czech
Republic are the center-left Czech Social Democratic Party and the center-right
Civic Democratic Party. Other parties represented in the Czech parliament
include the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia, the centrist Christian
Democratic Union-Czech People’s Party, and the conservative Freedom Union.
D | Local Government |
Administrative reform abolished
regional-level governments in 1990. The constitution adopted in 1992 required
that the country be divided into 14 new administrative divisions; this finally
occurred at the end of 2002, largely as a result of pressure by the EU. These
local governments have power over matters such as local taxation, schools,
roads, utilities, and public health.
E | Health and Welfare |
During the communist period, a single,
universal social-welfare system was established in Czechoslovakia. Health care
was guaranteed and in most cases made available free of charge. In 1991
government officials introduced a new system of social security in an attempt to
lessen the anticipated consequences of radical economic reform. When the Czech
Republic became independent in 1993, the government announced plans to gradually
privatize the health-care system, but progress has been slow.
F | Defense |
After 1989 the army of Czechoslovakia was
substantially reduced. When the federation dissolved several years later, the
army was divided into separate Czech and Slovak forces. In 2004 the total
strength of the Czech armed forces was 22,272 soldiers. Military service was
traditionally compulsory for all males age 18 and older and lasted for 12
months, but this policy was dropped in 2004.
G | International Organizations |
The Czech Republic is a member of the
United Nations (UN) and the Council of Europe (CE). The country also
participates in the Visegrad Group and the Central European Initiative (CEI),
both of which were founded to promote cooperation in the region after the
collapse of communism. In March 1999 the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland
joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the first three formerly
communist nations to do so. In 2004 the Czech Republic joined the European
Union.
VII | HISTORY |
The region that became the Czech Republic
was inhabited by Celtic and Germanic tribes before Slavic tribes from eastern
Europe arrived in the 5th century ad. Soon after their arrival, the Slavic
tribes were conquered by a Mongolian people known as the Avars. In about 623 a
Frankish merchant named Samo organized the Slavic tribes into a kingdom and led
this kingdom to defeat the Avars. Samo ruled over this Slavic kingdom, centered
in Bohemia, until his death in 658.
In Moravia, Slavic tribes helped the
Frankish king, Charlemagne, destroy the Avar empire in the late 700s and were
rewarded by receiving part of it as a fief. In the early part of the next
century, a Slavic chief named Mojmír I expanded this Slavic state to include
Bohemia, Slovakia, southern Poland, and parts of western Hungary. The expanded
state came to be known as the Empire of Great Moravia. In 907 Magyar tribes from
Hungary conquered the region, the empire disintegrated, and Slovakia came under
Hungarian rule.
A | The Rise of Bohemia |
In the 10th century the Premyslids—a
dynasty of the legendary Cechove, or Ceši, tribe, from which the Czechs derived
their name—unified neighboring Czech tribes and established a form of
centralized rule in Bohemia. Under the Premyslids, Bohemia expanded its
territory and came under the protection of the German-based Holy Roman Empire.
In 1212 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II made Bohemia a largely independent
kingdom within the empire. During the 1200s, many German craftsworkers and
merchants settled in Bohemia, contributing to the growing prosperity of the
region. In 1335 Bohemia was expanded to include a large part of Silesia.
Bohemia achieved great political and
cultural prominence under King Charles IV (also called Charles of Luxemburg),
who reigned from 1347 to 1378. Under Charles, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor
in 1355, Prague grew into a major European center of learning and culture.
Extensive building projects were undertaken, the most significant of which was
the founding of Charles University in 1348, the first university in central
Europe.
In the late 14th and early 15th
centuries an important church-reform movement took place in the Czech lands.
Based on the teachings of the Bohemian religious reformer Jan Hus (also spelled
John Huss), the Hussite movement attacked the authority and corruption of the
Roman Catholic church (see Hussites; Hussite Wars). Hus was tried for
heresy, and burned at the stake in 1415. His death triggered a series of
religious wars in Bohemia, which ended in 1446 with a compromise. In 1458 Jirí
of Poděbrady, a Protestant, was elected king of Bohemia by supporters of Jan
Hus. Jirí was the first Protestant to be elected king in all of Europe. In the
late 1400s, most of the Czech nobility converted to Protestantism.
B | Habsburg Rule |
In the 15th century, Bohemia was ruled
by a Polish prince, Vladislav II, who was also the king of Hungary. In 1526 the
death of Vladislav II’s heir left the crowns of both Hungary and Bohemia vacant,
and Ferdinand I, a member of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, became king of
Hungary and Bohemia. Much of the next century was characterized by conflict
between the Czech nobility and the Habsburg monarchy. In 1618 a revolt by the
Czech Protestant nobility began the Thirty Years’ War. In 1620 the Bohemian army
was defeated at the Battle of the White Mountain and many Czech nobles and
cultural leaders were killed or forced into exile. Those who remained in the
Czech lands were forced to convert to Catholicism and to give up their own
language and culture in favor of German.
German culture was dominant in the Czech
lands for the next 150 years. In the late 1700s industries began to develop in
Bohemia and Moravia and many Czech peasants began moving to urban areas, which
at that time were populated almost entirely by Germans. At the same time, Czech
writers, journalists, and intellectuals began working to create greater national
consciousness among the Czechs. By the second half of the 19th century, a mass
movement calling for Czech self-government had developed in the Czech lands.
Habsburg rule continued, however. In 1867 the Habsburg domains in central Europe
were reconstituted as the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary.
C | The Republic of Czechoslovakia |
During World War I (1914-1918) Tomáš
Garrigue Masaryk and other Czech leaders began to advocate the idea of an
independent state for Czechs and Slovaks, and worked to increase support for
their cause among Czechs and Slovaks living abroad. In 1918 the war ended, the
empire of Austria-Hungary collapsed, and the independent state of Czechoslovakia
was created, bringing Czechs and Slovaks together in a common state for the
first time in modern history. The new republic included Bohemia and Moravia,
part of Silesia, and Slovakia; the eastern region of Ruthenia became part of
Czechoslovakia the following year.
The constitution of Czechoslovakia
established a democratic republic committed to the protection of civil rights
for all citizens. Masaryk served as president of the republic from its founding
until 1935, when he was succeeded by Edvard Beneš. During the 1920s and early
1930s Czechoslovakia was remarkably stable. The country had inherited a wealth
of economic resources from the Habsburg monarchy, including a strong industrial
base, and this period was one of considerable economic prosperity. The chief
domestic problem facing the new leaders of Czechoslovakia was a growing
disaffection among the country’s large national minorities, the Slovaks and the
Sudeten Germans.
Despite their similar heritage, Czechs
and Slovaks differed in a number of important ways. The Czech lands were highly
developed economically with a social structure similar to that of other
developed European nations, while Slovakia was largely agrarian; the Czech
leadership rejected the authority of the clergy, while the majority of Slovaks
were practicing Catholics; and the Czech people had generally more education and
experience with self-government than the Slovaks. Although attempts were made to
industrialize Slovakia, these efforts were largely unsuccessful, due in part to
the Great Depression, the worldwide economic slump of the 1930s. Poverty,
unemployment, and frustration over the predominant role played by Czechs in the
country’s political and economic life led many Slovaks to emigrate from
Czechoslovakia or join nationalist Slovak movements.
Resentment was even stronger among the
country’s German population, most of whom lived in the Sudetenland on
Czechoslovakia’s western border. Unhappy with their loss of status following the
collapse of Austria-Hungary and the impact of Czechoslovak laws on their
economic situation, many Sudeten Germans came to support extreme nationalist
parties and the policies of Nazi Germany (see National Socialism).
D | The Nazi Invasion |
In 1938 German dictator Adolf Hitler
used the demands of the Sudeten Germans to force the government of
Czechoslovakia to give the Sudetenland to Germany. Czechoslovak leaders relied
on their French and British allies to resist Hitler’s pressure. However, at the
Munich Conference of 1938, the French and British decided to appease Hitler
(see Munich Pact). Faced with desertion by his allies, President Beneš
agreed to German demands. Later that year, Hungary and Poland claimed other
parts of Czechoslovakia. Faced with the threat of being divided by Germany,
Poland, and Hungary, Slovak leaders decided to withdraw from the republic and
declare independence. The Slovak state created in March 1939 copied the policies
of Germany and had little real independence. Meanwhile, German forces invaded
and occupied Bohemia and Moravia, claiming the entire region as a protectorate.
World War II broke out several months later. In mid-1940 Beneš, who had resigned
as president in 1938, established a government in exile in London.
Although the Czech people suffered
greatly under German occupation, loss of life among Czechs during World War II
was relatively minor compared to that of other nations. The Jewish population of
the Czech lands was virtually annihilated, however. More than 70,000 Czech Jews
were killed by the Nazis between 1939 and 1945.
In May 1945 troops from the USSR
liberated most of Czechoslovakia. The part of Bohemia containing the city of
Plzeň was liberated by American forces. Beneš and the other members of the
government in exile returned and the republic of Czechoslovakia was resurrected,
with the exception of Ruthenia, which was taken over by the USSR. From 1945
until February 1948, Czechoslovakia enjoyed a form of limited political
pluralism. While leaders of the Communist Party held many important government
positions, other political parties were also represented. During this period,
the government nationalized a number of major industries and expelled large
numbers of Germans and Hungarians from their homes.
E | Communist Czechoslovakia |
In the 1946 elections, the Communist
Party won 38 percent of the vote, a higher percentage than any other party. In
February 1948 the communists provoked a crisis that led to the resignation of
non-communist government ministers and the formation of a new
communist-dominated government. President Beneš resigned soon afterward, and was
replaced by Communist Party leader Klement Gottwald.
Once in power, Czechoslovakia’s
communist leaders attempted to copy the Soviet model of political organization
and economic development. Other political parties were outlawed or subordinated
to the Communist Party, which became the only effective political force in the
country. The secret police became increasingly powerful. Economic
decision-making was centralized, and almost all economic assets became state
property. Farmers were forced to enter collective farms. Government censorship
of the press and various forms of artistic expression became widespread.
The early 1950s was a period of harsh
repression in Czechoslovakia. Many top political leaders were imprisoned or
executed for having opinions that the government considered disloyal. In 1953
Gottwald died and was replaced by Antonin Zápotocký, who permitted a moderate
liberalization of conditions. However, when Antonin Novotný assumed the
presidency in 1957, strict governmental control was reimposed.
F | The Prague Spring |
During the 1960s the country experienced
a decline in economic performance. In 1968 a Slovak named Alexander Dubček
became the head of the Communist Party. Dubček introduced a program of liberal
reforms known as the Prague Spring or “socialism with a human face” in an
attempt to find a form of socialism better suited to Czechoslovakia. The press
was given greater freedom, citizens were granted opportunities to participate in
politics, and steps were taken to decentralize the economy. However, the USSR
feared that the reforms would weaken communist control of Czechoslovakia, and on
August 21 of that year, the Soviet Army, assisted by troops from other Warsaw
Pact nations, invaded Czechoslovakia and halted the liberalization process. In
April 1969 Gustav Husák replaced Dubček as head of the Communist Party. Many
intellectuals and party leaders who had supported liberalization lost their
positions as well. Húsak reestablished tight party control and censorship of the
press, and the Communist Party came to dominate political life once again.
During the 1970s the communist
leadership of Czechoslovakia attempted to gain popular support and preserve
political stability by raising the standard of living. They also used force and
coercion against people who opposed the regime. In these conditions, most people
withdrew from public life. However, a small but important group of
dissidents (political protesters) openly opposed the regime. Charter 77
and the Committee to Defend the Unjustly Persecuted (known by its Czech acronym,
VONS) became the most important dissident organizations.
G | The End of Communist Rule |
In the late 1980s the dissident movement
in Czechoslovakia grew, encouraged by the reforms that were taking place in the
USSR under Mikhail Gorbachev. In late 1989 Czechs joined with Slovaks in mass
demonstrations against the communist government. Less than one month later, the
government resigned and noncommunists took control of the country. A new
movement called Civic Forum was formed to represent democratic forces in the
Czech lands, and a similar movement called Public Against Violence (PAV)
developed in Slovakia. In December the parliament elected Václav Havel, a
dissident and noncommunist, to be the country’s new president. The transition to
noncommunist rule in Czechoslovakia occurred so smoothly and peacefully that it
came to be known as the Velvet Revolution.
In June 1990 the first free elections
since 1946 were held in Czechoslovakia. The majority of seats in parliament were
won by Havel’s Civic Forum in the Czech Republic and by the PAV, led by Vladimír
Mečiar, in Slovakia. The parliament reelected Havel as president in July, and
Havel asked Marian Čalfa, a former communist, to head the government as prime
minister. The country’s new leaders took office and began the process of
reinstituting democratic institutions in Czechoslovakia. Freedom of the press
and other political freedoms were restored; and laws were passed to remove the
legacy of communism from the legal system.
The government also took steps to
reintroduce a market economy in Czechoslovakia. In the early 1990s a mass
privatization program went into effect with the goal of shifting large numbers
of state-owned companies into private hands. This was achieved mainly through a
voucher privatization plan, which allowed citizens to purchase low-cost vouchers
that they could later trade for shares of stock in companies. Nearly all
eligible citizens participated in this plan. The country’s new leaders also
reoriented Czechoslovakia’s foreign policy. They established good relations with
the United States and Czechoslovakia’s Western European neighbors and indicated
their interest in joining international organizations such as the European
Community (now the European Union or EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO).
H | The Breakup of Czechoslovakia |
However, as these and other reforms got
underway, tensions developed between Czech and Slovak leaders. In part, the
tensions reflected the different histories of the two regions, but they also
reflected the fact that economic reform produced greater hardship in Slovakia
than in the more economically developed Czech lands. Because of their economic
differences, Czechs and Slovaks held conflicting views about the appropriate
pace and nature of economic reform. They also disagreed about how power should
be divided between the federal and republican governments. These differences
complicated the reform process and prevented the adoption of a new
constitution.
Disagreements between the two republics
came to a head in the June 1992 parliamentary elections. The right-of-center
Civic Democratic Party, led by Václav Klaus, won the elections in the Czech
lands, while Vladimír Mečiar’s left-of-center Movement for a Democratic Slovakia
won the largest share of the votes in Slovakia. Disagreements between the
republics intensified, and in July Slovakia declared its sovereignty. Havel
resigned as president of the Czechoslovak federation after this step.
Throughout the fall of 1992 Czech and
Slovak leaders negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November
the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on December 31,
despite polls indicating that a majority of citizens opposed the break up. In
January 1993 the Czechoslovak federation was replaced by two new independent
states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. By the end of the year, the two
countries had reached agreement on the division of 95 percent of federal
property, and had established close links, especially in the area of trade.
I | Independence |
The Czech Republic has experienced
remarkable political stability since it became an independent nation. In January
1993 Václav Havel was elected the country's first president and Klaus became
prime minister. Under these two men the Czech Republic emerged from decades of
communist stagnation, making the difficult transition to a democratic system of
government and a free-enterprise economy while reaching out to the rest of
Europe and the world. In 1996 the country held its first parliamentary
elections, with Klaus losing some support but retaining his position as prime
minister.
Another challenge facing the country has
been the plight of the country’s minority groups. After a great deal of debate,
the government voted in 1994 to return property to the families of Czech Jews
who were dispossessed by the Nazi regime during World War II. In recent years
there have also been debates concerning treatment of the country’s large Roma
minority (often called Gypsies). In 1997 hundreds of Roma attempted to seek
asylum in Canada because of persecution suffered in the Czech Republic.
After growing rapidly in the mid-1990s,
the Czech economy fell into a recession in 1997. Havel criticized Klaus for the
problems, and in late 1997 the prime minister and his cabinet resigned over a
financial scandal. Havel was narrowly reelected by the parliament for a second
presidential term in early 1998.
In 1999 the Czech Republic took a major
diplomatic step when it became a full member of NATO and one of the first
ex-communist countries to join the alliance (along with Poland and Hungary). The
following year the country became embroiled in an international dispute when it
opened a nuclear power plant in Temelín, a town not far from the border with
Austria. After the Austrian government protested the decision, Czech officials
agreed to adopt stricter safety regulations and safeguards.
J | Recent Developments |
In early 2003 Havel finished his second
presidential term. Barred from a third term by the Czech constitution, he
retired from politics. Former prime minister Klaus was elected to replace him
with 142 parliamentary votes, only one more than he needed to take the post.
In May 2004 the Czech Republic became
one of ten new members of the European Union (EU). In July 34-year-old Stanislav
Gross was appointed to head the government, becoming the youngest prime minister
in the history of the Czech Republic and the youngest in the EU. However, a
political crisis erupted in March 2005 over Gross’s personal finances. He
resigned the following month under pressure from his own party, the center-left
Social Democrats, and its coalition partners, the Christian Democrats and the
Freedom Union. Gross was replaced by Jiri Paroubek, also of the Social
Democratic Party, who, for a while, was able to hold the fragile centrist
coalition together and form a new government. However, the 2006 general election
resulted in political stalemate and Paroubek’s government resigned and was
replaced by one led by Mirek Topolánek of the Civic Democratic Party.
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