I | INTRODUCTION |
Romania, country in southeastern Europe, occupying the
northeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. Romania is a land of historic
villages and castles, fertile plains, and majestic mountains. For much of its
history, foreign powers, including the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary, have
controlled Romania or parts of it. Bucharest is Romania’s capital and largest
city.
Roughly oval in shape, Romania is nearly as
large as the state of Oregon. Romania shares borders with Bulgaria to the south,
Serbia to the southwest, Hungary to the northwest, Ukraine to the north, and
Moldova to the northeast. In the southeast, sandy beaches and seaside resorts
line Romania’s short coastline along the Black Sea. The Danube River, which
connects central Europe with the Black and Mediterranean seas, forms much of
Romania’s southern and southwestern borders with Bulgaria and Serbia.
Romania’s landscape is dominated by the
Carpathian Mountains, a great mountain system that cuts through the country in a
circular arc and covers about one-third of Romania’s total area. The thickly
forested mountains boast large populations of bears, wolves, lynx, deer, and
wild boar. The broad, swampy Danube delta, the largest in Europe, is an
important wildlife refuge and paradise for birdwatchers.
Agriculture has always been an important part
of Romanian life and, despite extensive industrialization since World War II,
farming remains a cornerstone of Romania’s economy. Today, nearly half of all
Romanians still live in rural areas, where people graze livestock, especially
sheep, and grow cereal grains, potatoes, fruits, and many other crops.
Romanian culture reflects the blending of
various cultural traditions over many centuries. When the Roman Empire conquered
Romania in 106 AD to form the province of Dacia, the native Thracian peoples
adopted the Latin language and many other basic features of Roman life.
Romanians are the only people of Eastern Europe who trace their language and
ancestry back to the ancient Romans. Early Roman influence was later challenged
by Slav, Greek, Turkish, and Hungarian influences. During the Middle Ages,
Byzantine influence was profound (Byzantine Empire), and it remains visible
today in the country’s picturesque castles and churches and in the predominance
of the Orthodox Church. The famous painted monasteries of Bukovina, with their
brilliant exterior frescoes, are among Europe’s greatest medieval monuments.
The modern country of Romania was created in
1859. It became fully independent in 1878. Romania was a kingdom from 1881 to
1947. In 1948 communists took control of Romania and modeled the government and
economy after those of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet
Union). In the 1960s Romania’s communist leaders began to distance themselves
from the Soviet Union and develop independent domestic and foreign policies.
Romania’s economy grew rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s. However, by the 1980s
economic growth had given way to stagnation, food shortages and other economic
hardships, and severe political repression.
In 1989 Romanians revolted against the
dictatorship of Nicolae Ceauşescu, the country’s president and leader of the
Romanian Communist Party. Ceauşescu and his wife were executed in December 1989,
and a noncommunist government was installed. The first free multiparty elections
took place in Romania in 1990. Since that time, Romania’s government has taken
steps toward economic and democratic reforms, although the pace of reform has
been slow and uneven. In March 2004 Romania formally joined the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO). Romania opened membership negotiations with the
European Union (EU) in 1999 and formally became a member at the beginning of
2007.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
Romania has a total land area of 238,391 sq km
(92,043 sq mi). At its greatest distance, Romania measures 720 km (450 mi) from
east to west and 515 km (320 mi) from north to south.
A | Natural Regions |
Transylvania, an extensive elevated
plateau region that reaches a maximum height of about 600 m (about 2,000 ft),
occupies most of central and northwestern Romania. Transylvania is divided by
wide valleys and rivers and is fringed by the Carpathian Mountains. This
mountain chain rises in a wide arc that reaches from northeastern Romania to the
southwest, and it has several divisions. The Eastern Carpathians extend from the
northern border to the center of the country and contain the forested region of
Bukovina; the Southern Carpathians, also known as the Transylvanian Alps,
stretch westward from the Eastern Carpathian range; and the Western Carpathians
traverse the western portion of Romania. The Southern Carpathians contain the
country’s highest peak, Moldoveanu, which rises to an elevation of 2,543 m
(8,343 ft).
Powerful earthquakes centered in the
Carpathians are not uncommon. In 1977 an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.5 on
the Richter scale inflicted serious damage on Bucharest and claimed more than
1,500 lives.
The areas stretching outward from
Romania’s mountainous interior contain hills and tablelands full of orchards and
vineyards, and flat lowlands where cereal and vegetable farming takes place. The
Tisza Plain dominates western Romania and borders both Hungary and Serbia; the
section of the plain that borders Serbia is generally known as the region of
Banat, while the section that borders Hungary is commonly referred to as
Crişana-Maramureş. To the east of central Romania, stretching from the
Carpathians to the Prut River along the Moldovan border, lies the region of
Moldavia. Southern Romania contains the region of Walachia, which stretches from
the southernmost mountains to the Danube and contains the city of Bucharest. The
small region of Dobruja, located in the extreme southeast between the Danube
River and the Black Sea, is home to fertile croplands and coastal tourist
resorts.
B | Rivers and Lakes |
The most important river of Romania is the
Danube. Its lower course forms a delta that covers much of northeastern Dobruja.
All of Romania’s major rivers are part of the Danube system. These include the
Mureş, the Someş, the Olt, the Prut, and the Siret. Romania has many small,
freshwater mountain lakes, but the largest lakes are saline lagoons on the coast
of the Black Sea; the largest of these is Lake Razelm.
C | Plant and Animal Life |
Wooded steppe, now largely cleared for
agriculture, dominates the plains of Walachia and Moldavia. Fruit trees are
common in the foothills of the mountains. The lower slopes have forests with
deciduous trees such as birch, beech, and oak. The forests of the higher
elevations are coniferous, consisting largely of pine and spruce trees. Above
the timberline (approximately 1,750 m/5,740 ft), the vegetation is alpine.
Wild animal life is abundant in most parts
of Romania. The larger animals, found chiefly in the Carpathian Mountains,
include wild boar, wolf, lynx, fox, bear, chamois, roe deer, goat, woodpecker,
jay, and gray owl. In the plains, squirrel, hare, badger, and polecat are
common. Many species of birds are abundant; the Danube delta region, now partly
a nature preserve, provides habitat for many resident and migratory birds. They
include the rare pygmy cormorant, white egret, and white-tailed sea eagle. Among
species of fish found in the rivers and offshore are pike, sturgeon, carp,
flounder, herring, salmon, perch, and eel.
D | Natural Resources |
The principal resources of Romania are
agricultural. About 43 percent of land in Romania is cultivated for crops or
used for orchards, and the soils in most parts of the country are fertile. In
Banat, Walachia, and Moldavia, soils consist mainly of chernozem, or black
earth, highly suited for growing grain. Soils in Transylvania are generally less
fertile.
Romania also holds a wealth of mineral
deposits, particularly petroleum, natural gas, salt, hard coal, lignite (brown
coal), iron ore, copper, bauxite, chromium, manganese, lead, and zinc. The
nation’s thick forests are another important natural resource.
E | Climate |
Romania has a temperate climate with long,
cold winters and hot summers. Temperatures are generally cooler in the
mountains, while the hottest areas in summer are the lowlands of Walachia,
Moldavia, and Dobruja. During winter, a harsh northeast wind known as the
crivat blows from the Russian steppes. During summer, the heat on the
lowlands may be accompanied by dry southwest winds and severe drought.
The average daily temperature range in
Bucharest is -7° to 1°C (19° to 34°F) in January and 16° to 30°C (61° to 86°F)
in July. Rainfall is heaviest during the months of April, May, June, September,
and October. Yearly rainfall averages about 650 mm (about 25 in), ranging from
about 500 mm (about 20 in) on the plains to about 1,020 mm (about 40 in) in the
mountains. The climate of Dobruja is typically very dry.
F | Environmental Issues |
Air pollution and water pollution caused
by industry are serious environmental problems in Romania. The country’s
factories, chemical plants, and electric power plants depend heavily on burning
coal, a process that emits high levels of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide
(see Sulfur)—a key component of acid rain. The industrial centers of
Copşa Mică, in central Romania, and Giurgiu, in the south, have severe air
pollution problems. Bucharest, the capital, also has serious air pollution. Much
of the nation’s industrial runoff ends up in the Danube river system, making
water unsafe for drinking and threatening the diverse ecosystems of the Danube
delta. The delta, the largest in Europe, was declared a World Heritage Site in
1991 (see World Heritage Committee). Its lakes and marshes are home to
hundreds of species of birds and dozens of fish and reptile species, many of
which are threatened with extinction.
Poor farming practices, especially
infrequent crop rotation, have led to severe soil degradation and erosion in
parts of Romania. In the 1980s large tracts of marshland lining the Danube were
drained and converted to cropland to aid food production. Deforestation,
however, is not a serious problem in Romania, where forests cover 26.7 percent
of the land.
III | THE PEOPLE OF ROMANIA |
A | Population and Settlement |
At the 1992 census, Romania had a
population of 22,760,449. The 2008 estimated population is 22,246,862, yielding
an average population density of 97 persons per sq km (250 per sq mi). The
population is 55 percent urban.
Before World War II (1939-1945), Romania
was largely a nation of farmers, with more than three-quarters of the population
living in isolated rural villages. Industrialization after the war brought a
large influx of people from the countryside into the cities and industrial
centers. Although the trend toward urbanization is continuing, 45 percent of
Romania’s population remains rural—a high percentage for a European nation.
B | Principal Cities |
Bucharest, the capital and largest city
of Romania, is the commercial and industrial center of the country. Located on
the plains in the southeast, Bucharest was famed in the early 20th century for
its architecture, planning, and cosmopolitan culture, earning the nickname
“Paris of the Balkans.” Bombing during World War II and the disastrous policies
of dictator Nicolae Ceauşescu—which resulted in the razing of historic sectors
in the city to construct massive socialist-inspired buildings, including the
grandiose Palace of Parliament—ruined much of Bucharest’s prewar beauty.
However, recent economic growth, especially after 2000, has led to modernization
of the city’s infrastructure and the restoration of many historic areas.
Other major cities include Constanţa,
the principal Romanian port on the Black Sea; Iaşi, a cultural and manufacturing
center; Timişoara, a textile, machinery, and chemical manufacturing center;
Cluj-Napoca, a commercial and industrial center; Galaţi, a naval and
metallurgical center; Braşov, a transportation and industrial center; and
Craiova, a center of food processing and locomotive manufacturing.
C | Ethnic Groups |
Ethnic Romanians, who constitute about 89
percent of the population, are descendants of the inhabitants of Dacia, an
ancient land roughly equivalent to modern Transylvania and Walachia. Dacia was
conquered by ancient Romans and incorporated into the Roman Empire in the early
2nd century AD.
The largest minority groups are ethnic
Hungarians, who comprise 7 percent of the population and live chiefly in
Transylvania; Roma (or Gypsies), who constitute 2 percent of the population; and
ethnic Germans, who make up less than 1 percent of the population. Romania’s
once-sizable German population has rapidly declined since the 1980s as many
Germans have chosen to emigrate to Germany. Romania also has communities of
Ukrainians, Ruthenians, Russians, Serbs, Croats, Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars,
Slovaks, and Jews. Many Romanian Jews and Roma were exterminated by German Nazis
during the Holocaust of World War II. Several hundred thousand Jews subsequently
emigrated, mainly to Israel, reducing Romania’s remaining Jewish population to
fewer than 10,000.
A longstanding social problem in Romania
involves the rights and treatment of Romania’s minority populations. Since the
end of communism, the Roma minority has been a frequent target of harassment and
hostility. In the early 1990s a large number of Roma left Romania for Germany,
but the German government soon sent many of them back. Conflicts have also
occurred between ethnic Hungarians and Romanians in Transylvania, as demands by
Hungarians for greater autonomy and linguistic rights have provoked responses
from nationalist Romanian groups.
D | Language |
Romania’s official language is Romanian
(see Romanian Language), a Romance language derived mainly from Latin.
However, Romanian has absorbed an unusually large number of words from the
Slavic languages, the Greek language, the Turkish language, the Hungarian
language, and the Albanian language. Until the mid-19th century, Romanian was
written using the Cyrillic alphabet. Since that time, Romanians have used a
modified Latin alphabet.
The chief minority languages in Romania
include Croatian, German, Hungarian, Turkish, and Romani (the language of the
Roma). English and French are taught in many schools and are the most common
second languages spoken in Romania.
E | Religion |
The principal religion of Romania is
Christianity. The Romanian Orthodox Church is the largest religious organization
in the country, claiming over 85 percent of the people as adherents.
Approximately 5 percent of Romanians, including much of the Hungarian
population, are Roman Catholic. Another 5 percent of the population belongs to
various Protestant denominations. The country also is home to small communities
of people who follow Islam and Judaism.
F | Education |
The adult literacy rate in Romania is 99
percent. Before 1989 the educational system heavily emphasized practical and
technical studies. In recent years, management, business, and social sciences
have become more popular.
Education in Romania is free and
compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 14; most children choose to
continue their education beyond the compulsory obligation. There are five types
of secondary schooling available: general education schools, which prepare
students to continue at the university level; vocational schools, which
emphasize technical training; art schools, which provide general education with
an emphasis on art and music; physical education schools, which provide general
education with an emphasis on physical fitness and training; and
teacher-training schools.
Romania has eight general universities:
the University of Bucharest (founded in 1694; refounded in 1864); the Al. I.
Cuza University of Iaşi (founded in 1860); the Babeş-Bolyai University of
Cluj-Napoca (1919); the University of Craiova (1966); the University of Ploieşti
(1948); the Dunarea de Jos (Lower Danube) University of Galaţi (founded in 1948;
given university status in 1974); the University of Timişoara (founded in 1962);
and the Transylvania University of Braşov (1971). There are also eight technical
universities and a number of other institutions of higher education.
G | Way of Life |
The political and economic changes that
took place in Romania in the 1980s and 1990s made daily life difficult for
ordinary citizens. Economic reforms and subsequent economic expansion,
especially after 2000, have improved living standards for some, although many
rural areas have seen few improvements. Food prices remain high relative to the
country’s low minimum wage, and relatively few Romanians can afford luxuries.
One-family homes are common in Romania’s villages, while most city dwellers live
in one-family apartments. Most apartment buildings were built during the
communist era and are cramped with minimal facilities.
Romanian food reflects a wide number of
influences, including French, Greek, Russian, and Turkish. Popular Romanian
dishes include mititei (seasoned grilled sausages) and mămăligă (a
cornmeal porridge that is especially common in rural areas and can be served in
many different ways). Red and white wines and a plum brandy called tuica
are popular beverages among Romanians, and plăcintă (turnovers) are a
typical dessert.
As in many nations of Europe, soccer is
the most popular national sport. Romania, which has participated in the Olympic
Games since 1924, is proud of its athletes and maintains special schools to
train them. Romanian athletes have won many gold medals in events as varied as
boxing, kayaking, and gymnastics. The famed gymnast Nadia Comaneci and the
international tennis star Ilie Nastase are Romanian.
IV | CULTURE |
Romanian culture is largely derived from
Roman influences, with strains of Slavic, Magyar (Hungarian), Greek, and Turkish
influences. Poems, folktales, and folk music have always held a central place in
Romanian life. Romanian literature, art, and music attained maturity in the 19th
century. Although Romania has been influenced by divergent Western trends, it
also has a well-developed indigenous folk culture.
A | Literature |
Romanian literature has a long, rich
history. Between the 15th and 18th centuries the national literature was
primarily religious, frequently taking the form of hagiography. In the late 18th
century historical writing became the dominant literary form. A number of major
works from this period consider the origins and history of the Romanian people.
In the century before World War I
(1914-1918), Romanian literature reflected a sense of national unity. A major
figure of this period was poet Mihai Eminescu, whose work was influenced by
German Romanticism. Other authors who distinguished themselves were narrative
poet and dramatist Vasile Alecsandri and dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, whose
plays satirized middle-class life of the late 1800s.
From 1921 to 1945 symbolism became
important in Romanian poetry. Important poets of that period were Lucian Blaga,
who was also a philosopher, and Tudor Arghezi. The novel also grew in importance
as a literary form at this time, and Mihail Sadoveanu was widely considered
Romania’s most important novelist.
After World War II (1939-1945) through
the 1980s, Romania’s literature was dominated by socialist realism—a school of
art that was officially sponsored by the communist government, and through which
socialist ideals were promoted and advanced. Romanian-born playwright Eugène
Ionesco, an influential proponent of the movement known as the theater of the
absurd, became famous while living in post-war France. Romanian-born author Elie
Wiesel, recipient of the 1986 Nobel Peace Prize (see Nobel Prizes) for
his work promoting human rights, wrote of his experiences in Nazi concentration
camps.
B | Art and Music |
Romanian art, like Romanian literature,
reached a high level of sophistication during the 19th century. Among the
leading painters were Theodor Aman, a portraitist, and landscape painter Nicolae
Grigorescu. As with literature, socialist realism characterized much Romanian
art from 1945 to 1989. The simplified, organic works produced by Romanian-born
French sculptor Constantin Brancusi were a notable contribution to 20th-century
concepts of art.
Romanians share a rich heritage of folk
music and dance. Many traditional Romanian tunes are based on music of the Roma
(or Gypsy) people, thousands of whom once wandered through the countryside. Many
Romanians enjoy dancing to folk music played at fast tempo, often linking arms
and showing off impressive footwork. Folk themes have inspired vibrant pop and
rock traditions in modern Romania, notably through the music of the rock band
Phoenix and the pop group Spitalul de Urgenþã (Emergency Hospital).
A number of classically trained Romanian
musicians achieved international recognition in the 20th century. Most famous
among them were Georges Enesco, a violinist and composer who is perhaps best
known for his Romanian rhapsodies, and pianist Dinu Lipatti.
C | Libraries and Museums |
Romania’s principal libraries are the
National Library (founded in 1955) and the Library of the Academy of Romania
(1867), both in Bucharest. The Romanian National Museum of Art (1950), in
Bucharest, contains fine collections of national, Western, and Asian art. Other
important museums include the Historical Museum of Bucharest (1984) and the
Museum of Romanian Literature (1957), also located in Bucharest.
V | ECONOMY |
Romania is richly endowed with fertile
agricultural lands, a variety of energy resources, and an educated workforce.
Yet Romania’s standard of living remains lower than in most other nations of
Europe. Since the fall of communism in 1989, Romania has taken significant steps
toward a market-oriented economy, although the transition has not been easy.
Romania faced the enormous task of restructuring an outdated industrial base and
an inefficient agricultural sector inherited from the communist regime. The pace
of economic reform, including privatization of industry, the return of
collectivized farmland to its original owners, and the removal of government
subsidies for consumer goods, has been slower than in many other formerly
communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Much of the 1990s in Romania
were marked by great economic hardship, including high unemployment,
skyrocketing inflation, and shortages of consumer goods.
Loans provided by the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) in the mid-1990s helped Romania lower its high rate of inflation,
which averaged more than 75 percent annually from 1992 to 2001, and the nation’s
service sector rapidly expanded. But Romania’s slow implementation of
privatization and other reforms hindered foreign investment and led the IMF on
several occasions to withhold loan disbursements.
By the early 2000s, however, Romania’s
fragile economy had stabilized, with strong foreign investment, solid economic
growth, and substantially lower rates of inflation and unemployment.
Construction of new shopping malls, homes, and infrastructure—including new
highways and water and sewage systems—have driven much of this growth. An
upgraded infrastructure is an essential part of Romania’s effort to meet minimum
standards set by the European Union (EU) and to expand the underdeveloped
tourism industry. In 2006 Romania’s gross domestic product (GDP) was $121.6
billion.
Romania is a member of the IMF, the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Each of these
organizations continues to provide Romania with financial and technical
assistance. A free trade agreement with the European Free Trade Association
(EFTA) went into effect in May 1993. Romania became an associate member of the
European Union in February 1993 and opened accession talks with the EU in 1999;
it became a full member of the organization in 2007. To attain EU membership,
Romania made commitments to rein in corruption at all levels of society, improve
treatment of ethnic minorities, expand press freedoms, strengthen law
enforcement, and improve its environmental record.
A | Agriculture |
Agriculture remains an important part of
Romania’s economy, occupying approximately 40 percent of the Romanian work
force. Field crops or orchards cover 43 percent of land in Romania. Romania’s
principal crops include cereal grains, such as corn, wheat, barley, and rye;
potatoes; grapes; and sugar beets. Cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, and poultry are
the most important types of livestock. Wine production plays a significant role
in Romanian agriculture.
In the mid-1980s more than 80 percent of
farms in Romania were either owned by the state or organized as collectives
(Collectivism). In collective farms, workers received wages, farm products, and
a portion of the farm’s profits. Because of the communist government’s emphasis
on industrial development, agricultural improvements and investments were
neglected and the agricultural sector grew notoriously inefficient; food
shortages developed in the 1980s.
After the communist regime was overthrown,
Romania’s new government began the process of dissolving collective farms and
distributing land to individual farm workers. Although state farms were not
broken up, farm workers whose land had been incorporated into state farms were
compensated. Today, most of Romania’s farmland has been returned to private
hands.
B | Forestry and Fishing |
Forests, which cover 27 percent of
Romania’s total land area, are state property. The country’s timber provides the
basis for important lumber, paper, and furniture industries. The Black Sea and
the Danube delta regions are known for their sturgeon catch. Romania’s fishing
operations in the Atlantic Ocean are significant.
C | Mining |
Petroleum is Romania’s principal mineral
resource, and the city of Ploieşti is the center of the nation’s
petroleum-refining industry. However, petroleum production is declining due to
the gradual depletion of reserves. Natural gas is also produced in significant
quantities. Other mineral products include hard coal, lignite (brown coal), iron
ore, bauxite, copper, lead, and zinc.
D | Manufacturing |
During the communist period, Romania’s
leaders pursued a policy of rapid industrialization with an emphasis on heavy
industry, particularly the production of iron and steel, machinery and
transportation equipment, and chemicals. A lesser emphasis was placed on
production of consumer goods (goods manufactured for use by people). Today,
Romania’s chief manufactured goods include iron and steel, machinery and
transportation equipment, chemicals, cement and other construction materials,
wood products, processed foods, and textiles and clothing.
E | Energy |
Thermal power plants fueled by petroleum,
natural gas, and coal supply 60 percent of Romania’s electricity, while most of
the rest comes from hydroelectric facilities (see Waterpower). The
country has two major hydroelectric plants, operated jointly with Serbia at the
Iron Gate gorge on the Danube. A nuclear power plant opened in 1996 at
Cernavodă.
F | Tourism and Foreign Trade |
Romania’s tourism industry has expanded
significantly since the end of the communist period, although there is
considerable room for further growth. Popular attractions include skiing and
hiking in the Carpathian Mountains; the Danube delta region, which draws fishing
enthusiasts and birdwatchers from around the world; the medieval castles of
Transylvania and the painted monasteries of Bukovina; and the seaside resorts
and beaches of the Black Sea.
During the early part of the communist
period, Romania’s foreign trade was conducted almost exclusively with the Soviet
Union and other communist countries. However, in the 1960s trade restrictions
were eased somewhat and Romania began expanding its contacts with Western
nations. In 2004 exports totaled $23.5 billion and imports totaled $32.7
billion. Principal exports include metals and metal products, mineral products,
textiles, and electrical machines and equipment. Imports include minerals,
machinery and equipment, textiles, and agriculture goods. Leading purchasers of
Romania’s exports are Germany, Italy, France, Turkey, The Netherlands, and
China. Chief sources for imports are Germany, Italy, Russia, France, the United
States, and Egypt.
G | Currency and Banking |
The basic monetary unit of Romania is the
leu (plural, lei), divided into 100 bani. The leu was
devalued in October 1990, but since 1991 its value has been determined by the
open market. The National Bank of Romania (founded in 1880) is the country’s
bank of issue; it is also responsible for managing monetary policy and
supervising the financial activities of all state enterprises. A number of
private banks have opened since 1990, and a Romanian stock exchange opened in
Bucharest in June 1995.
H | Transportation |
Romania’s railroad system is owned by the
government. Buses and trolleys provide a popular means of transportation within
cities, and Bucharest has a subway system with four major lines.
Romania’s principal seaports are
Constanţa, on the Black Sea, and Galaţi and Brăila, neighboring cities on the
lower Danube; Giurgiu, which has pipeline connections to the oil fields of
Ploieşti, is an important river port. A canal that opened in 1984 links
Constanţa with Cernavodă, a Danube River port. Another canal, completed in 1992,
connects the Main and Danube rivers and allows transport from the Black Sea to
the North Sea via the Rhine River. Romania has two major airlines, TAROM
(Romanian Air Transport), which is owned by the state and serves as the national
carrier, and LAR (Romanian Airlines), which was established as an independent
airline in 1990. International airports are located in Bucharest, Constanţa,
Timişoara, and Arad.
I | Communications |
Romania’s democratic constitution adopted
in 1991 (and amended in 2003) provides for freedom of the press—a sharp
departure from the strict governmental control exercised during the communist
era. Despite this constitutional guarantee, however, the press often faces some
pressures to limit criticism of economic and political leaders.
Romania’s press has a regional, rather
than a national, orientation. Newspapers and periodicals are published in all of
the country’s administrative districts, and many are published in the languages
of Romania’s ethnic minorities, including Hungarian, German, and Serbian. The
newspaper with the largest circulation is Evenimentul Zilei (The Event of
the Day), published in Bucharest. Other important newspapers include
Adevarul (The Truth) and Romania Libera (Free Romania), both of
which are published in Bucharest.
Postal and telegraph services in Romania
remain state-owned, while commercial companies offer terrestrial and cellular
telephone service. Although the Romanian state owns and operates several
television and radio stations, numerous commercial networks have also
proliferated since 1990, creating a dynamic media market.
VI | GOVERNMENT |
From 1948 to 1989 the Romanian Communist
Party controlled all levels of government in Romania, and the head of the
Communist Party was the country’s most powerful leader. In 1989 the Romanian
army joined in a popular uprising against the communist regime. President
Nicolae Ceauşescu was deposed and executed, and a provisional government was
established. In May 1990 multiparty elections were held to elect a president and
national legislature.
Romanian voters approved a new constitution
by popular referendum in December 1991. The constitution declares Romania to be
a parliamentary republic and provides for competing political parties, a
separation of powers between branches of government, a market economy, and
respect for human rights. Voters amended the constitution in October 2003,
changing many articles of the original document. Among the most important
changes were provisions protecting private property, permitting Romanian
minorities to use their native languages in courts and in other official
settings, and extending the term of Romania’s presidency from four to five
years.
A | Executive |
The president of Romania is elected by
direct, popular vote for a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is head
of state, representing the country in matters of foreign affairs, and serves as
the commander in chief of the armed forces.
The president appoints a prime minister
to head the government. The prime minister is generally the leader of the party
or coalition of parties with the majority of seats in parliament. The prime
minister is responsible for selecting a cabinet to help carry out the operations
of government.
B | Legislature |
Romania has a bicameral
(two-chamber) parliament called the National Assembly. It is composed of a lower
house, called the Chamber of Deputies, and an upper house, called the Senate.
Members of both houses of parliament are elected for four-year terms according
to a system of proportional representation, apart from a small number of seats
in the Chamber of Deputies that are reserved for ethnic minorities. All citizens
aged 18 and over are eligible to vote.
C | Judiciary |
The Romanian legal system is based on the
Code Napoléon (Napoleonic Code). The Supreme Court is Romania’s highest judicial
authority. Its members are appointed by the president at the proposal of the
Superior Council of Magistrates. In each of Romania’s 41 counties and in the
special municipality of Bucharest there is a county court and several lower
courts, or courts of first instance. The country also has 15 circuits of
appellate courts, in which appeals against sentences passed by local courts are
heard; there is a right of appeal from the appellate courts to the Supreme
Court.
Romania has a Constitutional Court,
charged with ensuring a balance of power among the branches of government. The
procurator-general is the highest judicial official in Romania, and is
responsible to the National Assembly, which appoints him or her for a four-year
term. The death penalty was abolished in December 1989 and is forbidden by the
constitution.
D | Political Parties |
Between 1948 and 1989 the only political
organization in Romania was the Romanian Communist Party. Led by Nicolae
Ceauşescu after 1965, it controlled all aspects of government. After Ceauşescu
was deposed in 1989, the Communist Party dissolved and a number of former
members formed the National Salvation Front (NSF). Many other new parties also
emerged at this time. The Romanian Communist Party was reestablished in May
1994.
About 90 political parties were
registered in Romania by 1994; however, only a small percentage of these were
represented in the government. Many parties in Romania are short-lived, and
mergers and coalitions of parties and political groupings are common. Among the
most important parties are the Social Democratic Party (PSD), formerly known as
the Party of Social Democracy of Romania (PSDR); the National Liberal Party
(PNL), which joined in 2003 with another large mainstream party, the Democratic
Party (PD), to form the PNL-PD, or Justice and Truth (DA) alliance; and the
anti-immigration Greater Romania Party (PRM). The Hungarian Democratic Union of
Romania represents Romania’s Hungarian minority.
E | Local Government |
Romania is divided into 41 counties and
the municipality of Bucharest. Each unit has its own local government, as do
cities, towns, and communes (rural areas), within each county.
F | Social Services |
Romania has a comprehensive social
insurance system that includes medical care, family allowances, retirement
pensions, and vacations at health resorts. After the revolution of 1989,
Romania’s poor health conditions were brought to light. International attention
was focused particularly on Romanian orphanages containing large numbers of
neglected children—a byproduct of the Ceauşescu regime’s policy of denying women
access to birth control or abortion to increase Romania’s birthrate. Many
children were found to be suffering from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS), hepatitis, and other serious illnesses. In the mid-1990s Romania had one
of the highest infant mortality rates in Europe. Although the World Bank has
granted loans to the Romanian government to help improve the country’s
health-care system, Romania’s infant mortality rate, at 23.7 deaths per 1,000
live births, remains high by European standards.
G | Defense |
In 2004 the total strength of Romania’s
armed forces was 97,200 members. In addition to centrally controlled units, the
armed forces consisted of 66,000 in the army, 14,000 in the air force, and 7,200
in the navy. Military service is compulsory for all men and lasts for a period
of 12 months in the army and air force and 18 months in the navy. The
Securitate (secret police force), loyal to Ceauşescu, was disbanded in
1990 and replaced by the Romanian Intelligence Service.
H | International Organizations |
Romania is a member of the United Nations
(UN), the Council of Europe (CE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). In
January 1994 Romania joined the Partnership for Peace program, and the following
year it sent peacekeeping troops to Angola, thereby participating in its first
military operation under UN auspices. Romania’s chief foreign policy goal after
the fall of communism, membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), was achieved in March 2004, when Romania formally joined the defensive
alliance. Romania became a full member of the European Union (EU) in 2007.
VII | HISTORY |
The territory that is now Romania first
appeared in history as Dacia. Most of its inhabitants were originally from the
region of Thrace, in Greece; they were called Getae by the Greeks, and later, by
the Romans, they were known as Dacians. Between ad 101 and 106 Dacia was conquered by
Roman emperor Trajan and incorporated into the Roman Empire as a province. Roman
colonists were sent into Dacia, and Rome developed the region considerably. The
Romans built roads, bridges, and a great wall that stretched from what is today
the Black Sea port of Constanţa across the region of Dobruja to the Danube
River.
In the middle part of the 3rd century a
Germanic people known as Goths drove the Romans out of much of Dacia. In about
270 Roman Emperor Lucius Domitius Aurelian decided to withdraw the Roman legions
and colonies to an area south of the Danube; some Roman civilians chose to stay,
however. Under the influence of the Romans, the people of Dacia adopted the
Latin language.
For the next thousand years, the
Daco-Roman people were subjected to successive invasions by the Huns, Avars,
Slavs, and Bulgars. Slavs brought Christianity to the region in the 4th century,
and through intermarriage and assimilation, changed the ethnic balance in
Romania. Its inhabitants developed into a distinct ethnic group, known as the
Vlachs, a name designating Latin-speakers of the Balkan Peninsula. In the 9th
century the Eastern Orthodox form of Christianity was introduced by the Bulgars
(see Orthodox Church).
In 1003 King Stephen I of Hungary
established control over most of the region of Transylvania in what is now
central and northwestern Romania. In the 13th century King Béla IV of Hungary
brought Saxons and other Germanic tribes into Transylvania to strengthen
Hungary’s position there. In the middle of the 13th century Hungarian expansion
drove many Vlachs to settle south and east of the Carpathian Mountains. There
they established the principality of Walachia, and later that of Moldavia. Each
was ruled by a succession of voivodes (native princes), who were
generally under the authority of either Hungary or Poland. Until the 19th
century the history of Romania was that of the separate principalities of
Walachia and Moldavia.
A | Walachia |
During the 13th and 14th centuries,
Walachia was involved in frequent struggles against Hungary. In the 15th century
the rulers of the Ottoman Empire began to extend their conquests northward.
Walachia was forced to capitulate to the Ottomans, although its leadership,
territory, and religion were not changed. Direct Ottoman rule was not felt in
Walachia until after the Ottomans defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of
Mohács in 1526.
At the end of the 16th century, a
Walachian voivode, Michael the Brave, led a revolt against the Ottomans and
succeeded in bringing Walachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania under his rule for a
very brief period. Michael is the national hero of Romania for his part in this
uprising and for being the first to combine the three territories that were to
form Romania.
After Michael’s defeat and death in
1601, the Hungarians ruled over Transylvania and the Ottomans regained control
of Moldavia and Walachia. Until 1821 the ruling families were often of Greek
origin. Known as hospodars, they were chosen from the Phanar district of
Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey) by the Ottoman sultan. The period of
Phanariot rule was one of the most oppressive and corrupt in Romanian history.
Exploitation of the peasants caused mass starvation and emigration.
B | Moldavia |
The history of Moldavia followed a
course similar to that of Walachia. The Moldavians were subjected first to
Hungarian and then to Polish rule before the Ottomans established a firm hold
over the region shortly after their conquest of Walachia. The reign of
Moldavia’s national hero Stephen the Great, which lasted from 1457 until 1504,
was marked by futile attempts to gain united support from Poland, Hungary, and
Venice against the Ottomans. As in Walachia, the Ottomans introduced Phanariot
rule, with the same disastrous results.
C | Russian Domination |
By the early 1700s the power of the
Ottoman Empire was declining. In the later 18th century Catherine the Great of
Russia, who had sought Romanian support against the Ottomans, declared Russia
the protector of all Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and brought
Moldavia and Walachia under Russia’s sphere of influence. In 1821 Tudor
Vladimirescu, a Romanian officer in the Russian army, led a nationalist revolt
resulting in the replacement of Phanariot rule with that of native Romanian
princes in Moldavia and Walachia. However, Russia obtained concessions in
Romania as a result of the Russo-Turkish wars.
By the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest
(1812), Russia annexed the region of Bessarabia (Bessarabiya) from Moldavia. The
Treaty of Adrianople (1829) gave Russia a virtual protectorate over Moldavia and
Walachia. A Russian-sponsored constitution gave power to the native princes and
landowners of Moldavia and Walachia. Creation of the same governmental structure
for both principalities facilitated their later union.
D | The Struggle for Independence |
By the mid-1800s a unification movement
had gathered strength in Moldavia and Walachia. The movement produced local
uprisings that were suppressed by the combined action of Ottoman and Russian
troops. The Treaty of Paris of 1856, which ended the Crimean War between the
Ottoman Empire and Russia, established Moldavia and Walachia as principalities
that would continue to pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire. Russia was obliged to
return southern Bessarabia to Moldavia. In 1857 the councils of Moldavia and
Walachia voted for union under the name Romania, with a hereditary
prince, autonomy, and neutrality. Alexandru Ion Cuza was elected prince in
January 1859.
In May 1864 a new constitution of
Romania was adopted, establishing a bicameral (two-chambered) national
legislature. In the same year, Prince Alexandru Ion I freed the peasants from
their feudal burdens. His attempts at reform led to his removal by local
landowners in 1866. A German prince, under the name of Carol I, was elected to
replace him, and a new constitution gave Carol veto power over all legislation.
The long period of Carol’s reign (prince, 1866-1881; king, 1881-1914) saw great
economic expansion but few political rights for the Romanian people. The last
traces of Ottoman rule, which had lasted for nearly 500 years, finally
disappeared as a result of a Russian-Romanian victory over the Ottomans in the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877 and 1878 (see Russo-Turkish Wars).
E | The Kingdom of Romania |
The full independence of Romania was
recognized in 1878 by the Congress of Berlin, which also restored southern
Bessarabia to Russia. As compensation, Romania accepted northern Dobruja from
Bulgaria. Carol I was crowned king in 1881 and won the recognition of the major
European powers.
Political corruption, continual foreign
intervention, and the need for land reform continued. Two Balkan Wars, arising
from the collapse of Ottoman power in Europe, were fought in 1912 and 1913.
Romania entered the second Balkan War and annexed the southern part of Dobruja
from Bulgaria. King Carol died in 1914 and was succeeded by his nephew,
Ferdinand I.
F | Greater Romania |
When World War I broke out in 1914,
Romania declared a policy of armed neutrality. However, in August 1916, Romania
joined the Allied Powers in their fight against the Central Powers, chiefly
Austria-Hungary and Germany. Romania hoped to gain several provinces of
Austria-Hungary that had large Romanian populations. The Allies won the war in
1918, and as part of the peace settlement, Romania acquired Transylvania, part
of the Banat, and the Crişana-Maramureş region from Hungary, Bukovina from
Austria, and Bessarabia from Russia. Romania emerged from the war having almost
doubled its area and population.
During the 1920s, Romania had a
parliamentary regime and a prosperous economy. Land reform broke up many large
estates. However, friction between ethnic minorities, many of them living in
territories ceded to Romania after World War I, caused instability. King
Ferdinand’s reign ended with his death in 1927, but his son, Crown Prince Carol,
renounced the throne in favor of his own son Michael.
G | The Rise of Fascism |
After 1929, Romania was engulfed in the
worldwide economic crisis. Large-scale unemployment and political unrest led to
the rapid growth of fascist (see Fascism) organizations, the most
powerful of which was the violently anti-Semitic Iron Guard. Prince Carol
returned in 1930 and was proclaimed King Carol II. Romania moved slowly into the
sphere of influence of Nazi Germany (see National Socialism). Rigid
censorship was introduced, and the administration began to govern by decree.
In 1938 Carol assumed dictatorial
powers, but the new regime was not supported by the government. After the
signing of the German-Soviet pact in 1939, Romania was forced to cede part of
Transylvania to Hungary and to give Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to the
USSR. Southern Dobruja was returned to Bulgaria soon afterwards. Faced with the
beginning of rebellion led by the Iron Guard, the king suspended Romania’s
constitution and appointed General Ion Antonescu prime minister. Antonescu,
backed by the Guard, demanded that King Carol abdicate in favor of the king’s
son Michael, and leave the country. Antonescu then assumed dictatorial powers
and became chief of state as well as president of the council of ministers.
H | World War II |
As an ally of Germany, Romania declared
war on the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II. The Romanian army reclaimed
Bessarabia and Bukovina and advanced as far as southern Ukraine, but suffered
heavy losses in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942 and 1943. When Soviet troops
entered Romania in 1944, King Michael dismissed Antonescu, surrendered to the
Soviet Union, and declared war on Germany. Soviet pressure led to the creation
of a left-wing government under Petru Groza in March 1945.
I | Romania Under Communism |
By the terms of the armistice agreement,
Romania lost northern Bukovina and Bessarabia to the Soviet Union and recovered
northern Transylvania from Hungary. The agreement also limited the strength of
the Romanian armed forces and stipulated that the Romanian people should enjoy
all personal liberties. On December 30, 1947, the monarchy was abolished, and
King Michael was forced to abdicate. The People’s Republic of Romania was then
proclaimed, with a constitution similar to that of the USSR, and power passed to
the Romanian Communist Party (see Communism).
In 1948 and 1949 Romanian cultural and
political institutions were reorganized to conform with Soviet models. This
process, known as Sovietization, also included frequent purges of dissidents
(political protestors). In 1949 the United States and the United Kingdom twice
accused Romania of systematically violating the human rights provisions in the
post-World War II peace treaty. In November 1950 this charge was upheld by the
United Nations General Assembly. New constitutions adopted in 1952 and 1965 were
both patterned after the Soviet communist government. Throughout the postwar
period Romania’s leadership remained stable. Gheorghe Gheorgiu-Dej, head of the
Romanian Communist Party since 1945, replaced Groza as premier.
J | An Independent Regime |
After the death of Soviet leader Joseph
Stalin in 1953, Romania gradually drew away from close dependence on the Soviet
Union. Gheorgiu-Dej asserted the country’s right to develop its own variety of
socialism. Throughout the 1950s the government emphasized the nationalization
and development of industry. This effort proved highly successful, and in the
1960s official estimates of the national industrial growth rate averaged about
12 percent annually, ranking among the highest in Eastern Europe. The
collectivization of agriculture began in July 1949, and in 1962 the government
announced that all arable land had been absorbed into the socialized sector
(see Collectivism). Farmers were permitted, however, to keep small plots
for private use.
In the early postwar years, under Soviet
domination, Romania cooperated fully in such Communist organizations as
Cominform, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), and after 1955,
the Warsaw Pact. From the early 1960s on, however, Romania began to exercise a
considerable degree of independence. In 1963 the government rejected COMECON
plans for the integration of the economies of the Communist states, chiefly
because the plans restricted Romania to a role as supplier of oil, grains, and
primary materials. Romanians believed these plans would hinder their country’s
rate of industrial growth, which had been higher in the several years prior than
that of any other Soviet-bloc country. Romanian protests gained some concessions
in the form of Soviet aid for the development of a major steel plant at Galaţi.
The rift between the Soviet Union and China in the 1960s gave Romania new
opportunities to reduce Soviet influence. A party statement in 1964 confirmed
Romania’s independent policies, including closer ties with the West.
In 1965 Gheorgiu-Dej, party chief for
most of 20 years, died and was succeeded by Nicolae Ceauşescu. In 1967 Ceauşescu
also became president of the state council. He advanced Romania’s nationalist
policies and renamed the country the Socialist Republic of Romania. A new
constitution in 1965 downgraded the Soviet Union’s role in Romanian history. The
country did not follow the Soviet bloc in breaking diplomatic ties with Israel
after the Arab-Israeli War in 1967 (see Six Day War), and Ceauşescu
openly denounced the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
At home, the communist government held
sole power, censored the press, and restricted personal liberties. Ceauşescu
promoted a personality cult around himself and his family. Improved relations
with China and Western Europe brought aid and new technology, and the economy
grew substantially in the 1960s and 1970s.
Romania continued to pursue an
independent foreign policy, despite the disapproval of the Soviet bloc. In
addition, the Romanian government actively increased its contacts with the West.
After a visit from United States president Richard Nixon in 1969, Ceauşescu paid
several visits to the United States. In 1975 the United States granted Romania
most-favored-nation trade status, and in 1976 a ten-year economic pact was
signed by the two countries. Romania joined the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)
in 1972 and in 1976 signed the first formal pact (on textiles) between the
European Economic Community (EEC, a predecessor of the European Union) and an
Eastern European nation.
As the leader of the only Eastern
European country to recognize both Israel and Egypt, Ceauşescu helped arrange
Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat’s historic peacemaking visit to Israel in
1977. Romania signed a friendship treaty with the USSR in 1970, received Soviet
Communist Party chief Leonid Brezhnev in 1976, and sent Ceauşescu to the Soviet
Union and East Germany. Romania also signed a treaty of friendship with Hungary
in 1972 and agreements on hydroelectricity with Yugoslavia in 1976 and Bulgaria
in 1977. Taking an unprecedented step outside the Soviet bloc, Ceauşescu visited
China in 1971, subsequently signing economic and air transport agreements. In
1980 he refused to endorse the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Although diplomatic in matters of
foreign policy, Ceauşescu strictly enforced communist orthodoxy in domestic
affairs. In 1971 Ceauşescu cracked down on all deviation in party, government,
and cultural leadership. He was reelected head of state in 1975, and the party
and government were reorganized in 1977. Despite enormous damage caused by
severe floods and an earthquake, the economy grew during the 1970s, especially
heavy industry and foreign trade. However, repression, pollution, and
mismanagement of agriculture gradually discredited the government. In the 1980s
Ceauşescu used virtually all of Romania’s foreign currency reserves to pay off
the foreign debt, producing major food and fuel shortages in a country whose
standard of living was already among the lowest in Europe. A forced resettlement
program announced in 1988, which called for the destruction of up to 8,000
villages, was also widely unpopular.
K | Regime Changes |
In 1989 Ceauşescu’s brutal suppression
of antigovernment demonstrations in Timişoara turned the army against him. He
fled Bucharest with his wife, Elena, on December 22, 1989, but the two were soon
captured. Ceauşescu and his wife were charged with murder and embezzlement of
government funds, and a secret trial took place. Both were found guilty and were
executed on December 25. An interim body made up chiefly of former communist
officials took control of the government, and Ion Iliescu became the country’s
acting president. The new government revoked many of Ceauşescu’s repressive
policies and imprisoned some of the leaders of his regime.
In May 1990 multiparty elections for the
legislature and the presidency were held. Iliescu was elected president, and his
party, the National Salvation Front (NSF), won control of the legislature. Peter
Roman became Romania’s prime minister. The elections did not put a stop to the
antigovernment demonstrations, which continued throughout the year, often in
protest of economic conditions. Riots by miners led to the resignation of
Roman’s government in September. In October former finance minister Theodor
Stolojan succeeded Roman as prime minister and formed a new cabinet. An economic
austerity program was introduced that month.
In December 1991 a new democratic
constitution was adopted by popular referendum (later amended in October 2003).
Presidential and legislative elections were held in September 1992 with a runoff
presidential contest in October. Iliescu was reelected president, while the
Democratic National Salvation Front (DNSF), a party that emerged from the
breakup of the NSF, won the largest representation in the legislature and formed
a coalition government. Iliescu appointed economist Nicolae Vacaroiu to head the
government as prime minister. In 1993 the DNSF merged with several smaller
parties and changed its name to the Party of Social Democracy of Romania (PSDR).
During 1994 nationalist parties gained increasing influence in the Romanian
government.
L | Ethnic Turmoil |
Romania experienced significant ethnic
turmoil in the early 1990s. Attacks against Roma (Gypsies) in 1991 resulted in
an exodus of Roma, mostly to Germany, but also to Austria and the Czech
Republic. However, in September 1992 the German government returned 43,000
refugees to Romania, more than half of them Roma. Relations with Hungary were
strained as a result of clashes between ethnic Hungarians and Romanian
nationalists in Transylvania. In 1993 the Romanian government expanded the
educational and linguistic rights of ethnic Germans and Hungarians within its
borders.
In 1994 Romania hosted an international
conference on the status of ethnic minorities in Central Europe. However,
disagreements over the rights of ethnic minorities in Romania continued to be a
problem. In June 1995 the Romanian parliament enacted a law denying ethnic
minorities the right to higher education in their native language in many
subjects. Thousands of ethnic Hungarians protested against the legislation. In
September 1996 the leaders of Romania and Hungary signed a treaty of friendship
and cooperation intended to guarantee the rights of ethnic minority groups.
M | Peaceful Transfer of Power |
Presidential and legislative elections
held in November 1996 marked Romania’s first peaceful transfer of power in the
post-communist era. The ruling coalition headed by the PSDR lost its majority in
parliament to opposition parties. The Democratic Convention of Romania (DCR), a
coalition of six opposition parties, joined with another opposition grouping,
the Social Democratic Union (SDU), in a governing coalition, forming Romania’s
first staunchly anticommunist majority in the legislature. The DCR’s
presidential candidate, reform-minded academic Emil Constantinescu, defeated
Iliescu in the runoff presidential elections held November 17. Constantinescu
named a popular DCR politician, Bucharest mayor Victor Ciorbea, as the new prime
minister.
The new government pledged to implement
a comprehensive plan of economic reform, including painful austerity measures,
in an attempt to counter Romania’s seven years of lackluster progress toward a
free-market economy. Also during this time, the government pursued a highly
publicized and rigorous campaign against crime and corruption. Constantinescu
symbolically broke with former policy by lifting a ban on visits into the
country by Romania’s former monarch, King Michael, who was deposed during the
communist takeover.
N | Foreign Policy Initiatives |
Throughout the 1990s, Romania’s foreign
affairs were focused primarily on building better relations with Western Europe
and the United States. Romania began accession talks with the European Union
(EU) in 1999, with the expectation of becoming a full member in 2007. Romania
also joined the Partnership for Peace program of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1994; in 2004 Romania was formally admitted as a NATO
member.
In 1997 Romania’s diplomatic relations
with its neighbors improved dramatically. Efforts to reconcile centuries of
distrust with Hungary brought an unprecedented visit to Romania by a Hungarian
head of state, President Árpád Göncz, in late May. In early June the presidents
of Ukraine and Romania signed a friendship treaty that ended a decades-old
territorial dispute over a fuel-rich island located near the coasts of both
countries in the Black Sea.
O | Domestic Difficulties |
For all of its success in international
affairs, Ciorbea’s government struggled domestically to continue the process of
economic reform. In 1997 inflation soared, state-owned companies and utilities
with bloated payrolls continued their inefficient operations, and a promise to
privatize state-owned banks never materialized. The SDU defected from Ciorbea’s
coalition in parliament in January 1998, and in March Ciorbea was forced to
resign. Radu Vasile, from the DCR, was appointed in April to succeed him, and
the SDU rejoined the ruling coalition. Upon taking office, Vasile promised to
move ahead with privatization. Vasile’s government planned to close more than
150 unprofitable factories and mines.
In January 1999 about 10,000 striking
coal miners marched on Bucharest to protest mine closures and to demand a major
wage increase. The miners marched for five days until they dispersed after the
government deployed army and special police forces. As part of a compromise,
Vasile agreed to increase miners’ wages and reopen some mines. Vasile’s
government collapsed in December 1999 when several cabinet ministers withdrew
their support for him and resigned. Constantinescu then dismissed Vasile, but
Vasile refused to go, claiming the president’s action was illegal. However,
intense political pressure forced Vasile to step down, and Constantinescu named
National Bank governor Mugur Isarescu to succeed him.
P | Recent Events |
In parliamentary elections in November
2000, the Party of Social Democracy of Romania (PSDR, subsequently renamed the
Social Democratic Party, or PSD) won the greatest number of seats (but not a
majority). Earlier in the year, Constantinescu announced he would not run in the
presidential election, also scheduled for November 2000. Ion Iliescu, Romania’s
president from 1990 to 1996, finished first, with 37 percent of the vote, and
Corneliu Vadim Tudor, leader of the far-right Greater Romania Party, came in
second. Iliescu returned to the presidency after winning the runoff election in
December. The PSDR chose to form a minority government, rather than assemble a
coalition with a parliamentary majority. Adrian Nǎstase, first vice president of
the PSDR and a protégé of Iliescu’s, was named prime minister.
The new government undertook several
steps intended to ease the way for attaining membership in the European Union
(EU). In an effort to comply with EU directives concerning minority rights, the
National Assembly abolished a law making homosexuality a crime; Romania had been
the last country in Europe where homosexuality was a criminal offense. In
October 2003, the government backed a referendum to amend the constitution to
protect the rights of ethnic minorities and extend the rights of property
owners. These measures aimed to bring Romania further into line with EU
standards.
P1 | Change of Leadership |
The presidential and parliamentary
elections in late 2004 resulted in a change of leadership in Romania. Traian
Bǎsescu, the popular mayor of Bucharest and a member of the center-right Justice
and Truth (DA) alliance (a coalition of the National Liberal Party, or PNL, and
the Democratic Party, or PD), won the presidential runoff election on December
12. Bǎsescu narrowly defeated incumbent prime minister and PSD leader Adrian
Nǎstase, who won the first presidential vote in November amid opposition
allegations of voting fraud.
Bǎsescu had made the fight against
corruption and poverty key campaign planks, and he pledged to form a government
that would work to ensure Romania’s entry in the EU. He quit the PD in order to
take his oath as president, abiding by constitutional provisions that require
the president to be politically independent.
Meanwhile, in the parliamentary
elections of November 2004 the PSD won the most seats, followed by the DA
alliance. No party gained enough seats to form a majority. Following his
election in December, Bǎsescu announced that he would select a representative of
the DA alliance to form a government, prompting the PSD to accuse Bǎsescu of
thwarting the will of the people. Bǎsescu named PNL leader Cǎlin Popescu
Tǎriceanu as prime minister designate.
By late December Tǎriceanu had
succeeded in building a majority coalition by gaining the support of the
Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania (a party representing Romania’s Hungarian
minority), a number of other deputies representing ethnic minorities, and the
small Humanist Party of Romania (PUR). The PSD’s coalition ally in the previous
government, the PUR unexpectedly switched sides and threw its support behind
Tǎriceanu’s coalition, giving the new government a comfortable, if unstable,
majority.
P2 | EU Membership |
By December 2004 Romania had
concluded membership talks with the EU over the terms of its entry. The
agreement called for continued reforms to modernize the economy (including
privatization and the reduction of state subsidies to industries), border
protection reforms, and measures to rein in corruption and build a more
independent judiciary. The agreement also established measures to monitor
Romania’s progress in achieving its reform agenda.
Romania’s progress in implementing
these reforms led the EU to accept the country as a full member in early 2007.
Romania’s southern neighbor, Bulgaria, also attained full membership. The two
countries ranked as the poorest in the EU, with per-capita income in each only
about a third of that in other member nations. Their inclusion in the EU brought
the organization’s membership to 27 countries and expanded its borders to the
Black Sea.
No comments:
Post a Comment