I | INTRODUCTION |
Norway, country in northern Europe, in the region
called Scandinavia. A long and mostly narrow country, Norway occupies the
western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Norway’s extensive coastline is
washed on three sides by seas. To the north is the Barents Sea, an arm of the
Arctic Ocean; to the west is the Norwegian Sea; and to the south are the
Skagerrak, a strait separating Norway from Denmark, and the North Sea. Norway
shares a long eastern border with Sweden, and in the far northeast Norway shares
a frontier with Russia and Finland. Oslo, in the southeast, is Norway’s capital
and largest city.
Norway has several overseas possessions. In the
Arctic Ocean are the Svalbard archipelago and Jan Mayen, a volcanic island
northeast of Iceland. Norway’s possessions also include Bouvet Island, an
uninhabited island in the South Atlantic Ocean, and Peter I Island, off
Antarctica. Norway also claims the portion of Antarctica known as Queen Maud
Land.
Norway is a land of rugged, pine-topped
mountain ranges, valleys gouged out by glaciers, and narrow deep-sided inlets
from the sea known as fjords. A line of offshore islands called the skerry
guard shields the coastline and forms a protected inland waterway. Norway’s
name, which means “northern way,” reflects the importance of this waterway in
linking the many small fjord and valley communities that are otherwise separated
by rugged terrain.
As one of the world’s northernmost countries,
Norway is sometimes called the Land of the Midnight Sun. One-third of
Norway lies north of the Arctic Circle, where there is almost continuous
daylight from May through July. In midwinter the far north is dark almost all of
the time. The beauty of the land inspired musical works by Norway’s most famous
composer, Edvard Grieg, who attempted to capture the changing mood created by
the alternately light and dark seasons.
Today, as in the past, most of Norway’s people
live along the shores of the fjords in the south. For many centuries, as fishers
and traders, they lived off the sea. It was from Norway’s coast that the
Vikings—skilled sailors who built a vast maritime trading network—ventured
across the Atlantic Ocean to Iceland, later becoming the first Europeans to
reach Greenland and North America in the late 10th century. The lure of the sea
has remained strong into modern times. Norway retains a vigorous fishing
industry and its merchant marine fleet is one of the world’s largest. During the
late 20th century, the discovery of vast reserves of petroleum and natural gas
in Norway’s portion of the North Sea brought an important new source of
prosperity to the country. Today, Norway is among the world’s largest exporters
of fossil fuels.
The first unified Norwegian kingdom emerged in
the 9th century ad. In 1397 Norway
became a province of Denmark and was dominated by that country until 1814, when
Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden. A surge of Norwegian nationalism in the 19th
century led to the dissolution of the union with Sweden. Norway became an
independent nation in 1905, with a constitutional monarch as head of state and a
democratically elected government. Norway’s official name is the Kingdom of
Norway (Norwegian Kongeriket Norge).
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
Norway is roughly as large as the state of
Montana with a total land area of 385,639 sq km (148,896 sq mi). The landscape
is rugged and mountainous with few areas of lowlands. The average elevation of
Norway is more than 460 m (1,500 ft) above sea level. Norway’s coastline is, in
proportion to its area, longer than that of any other large nation in the world.
These geographical facts have been especially significant in Norway’s historical
development.
A | Natural Regions |
Mountains cover three-fifths of Norway and
extend for almost its entire length. Scraped and rounded by glaciers, the
mountains slope gradually to the east and drop sharply to the sea in the west.
Northern Norway is a vast region of fjords, mountains, and islands. In the
northernmost part of this region the fjords open into the cold waters of the
Arctic Ocean. From the fjord heads the land rises to the vast Finnmarksvidda, a
bleak plateau.
In central Norway the low, flat valleys
surrounding the city of Trondheim are among the country’s most important
agricultural regions. At the center of this region is the broad Trondheimsfjord,
a body of water sheltered from the sea by peninsulas and islands.
Mountains rise again in the south, where
the country broadens, and are grouped into the Dovrefjell and Langfjell ranges.
Within the Langfjell is Norway’s highest peak, the Galdhøpiggen, which rises to
2,469 m (8,100 ft). To the west of this peak is Europe’s largest glacier, the
Jostedalsbreen, which is 97 km (60 mi) long and 24 km (15 mi) wide. Farther
south the Langfjell separates the fertile valleys of eastern Norway and the
rugged land of the western fjords. The gradual slopes in the east are
intensively cultivated and heavily settled; more than half of Norway’s
population lives in this region.
B | Rivers and Lakes |
Norway has abundant rivers and lakes. The
larger rivers of Norway are found in the east, where the country’s longest
river, the Glåma (Glomma), has a course of 610 km (380 mi). With its
tributaries, the Glåma drains about one-eighth of Norway’s area. In the west
rivers are generally short and swift, with many rapids and falls. The longest
river in northern Norway is the Tana. Flowing north into the Barents Sea, it
forms part of the frontier with Finland, and it is renowned as the country’s
most important salmon-fishing river. Norway has tens of thousands of glacial
lakes. The largest is Lake Mjøsa in the southeast, with an area of 390 sq km
(150 sq mi).
C | Coastline and Islands |
Fjords form Norway’s most distinctive
physical feature—its deeply indented coastline. Geologists believe the fjords
were once mountain valleys that were gouged by glaciers as the glaciers moved
slowly to the sea. Later, the sea flooded the valleys to form fingers of water
extending far into the interior. The most spectacular fjords are in the west,
where mountains descend steeply to the sea. The longest and deepest fjord,
Sognafjorden, is there. It is about 204 km (about 127 mi) long, and, in places,
its rock walls rise abruptly from the sea to heights of 1,500 m (5,000 ft) or
more. Norway’s most important harbors and cities are situated along the fjords,
and where the land permits, farms line the steep banks.
More than 150,000 islands protect the
coastline and gateways to the fjords from the worst of the stormy weather that
sweeps the Arctic Ocean, and they provide an inland channel that in places is
remarkably calm. Many of these islands, known as the skerry guard, are
little more than rocks washed by the surf, but others are of considerable size.
The Lofoten and Vesterålen island archipelagos in the northwest comprise
Norway’s largest coastal island groups. The islands are the glaciated tops of an
ancient volcanic mountain range, now partially submerged. Norway has a coastline
of approximately 2,740 km (about 1,700 mi). If all the islands and inlets are
included, Norway’s coastline extends about 21,930 km (about 13,620 mi).
D | Climate |
Despite its northerly location, Norway has
a generally favorable climate, with cool summers and mild winters. The warm
waters of the North Atlantic Drift, an extension of the Gulf Stream, flow along
the western coast of Norway and give the country a warmer climate than that of
other countries at the same latitude. A maritime climate generally prevails over
the coastal islands and lowlands, and most of the country’s fjords and harbors
remain ice-free all year. At Bergen the average high temperature in January is
3°C (38°F), and the average in July is 19°C (66°F). Rainfall is heaviest along
the west coast, with precipitation decreasing inland. The average annual
precipitation in Bergen is 1,930 mm (76 in).
In the interior, a more continental climate
prevails. Winters are typically colder, and summers are warmer. At Oslo the
average high temperature in January is 5°C (41°F), slightly warmer than Bergen;
however, the average high in July is significantly warmer at 28°C (82°F).
Precipitation is generally less here than on the west coast, averaging 760 mm
(30 in) annually. In the highlands of northern Norway the climate is subarctic,
although temperatures are significantly milder in coastal areas.
E | Vegetation and Animal Life |
Forests cover slightly more than one-fourth
of Norway’s land area. Mainly deciduous forests are found in the coastal areas
of southern and southwestern Norway. The principal species are birch, ash,
hazel, elm, maple, and linden, but in some locations oak, yew, and holly may be
found. To the east and north the forests contain increasing numbers of conifers.
Thick boreal coniferous forests are found in coastal regions and in the valleys
of eastern and central Norway. These forests are dominated by Scotch pine and
Norway spruce, but also contain birch, alder, aspen, and mountain ash. Wild
berries, such as the blueberry, lingonberry (the fruit of the mountain
cranberry), and cloudberry, grow in most woodland areas. In the far north and at
high elevations are tundra regions. The tundra is a treeless heath, with
vegetation consisting mainly of hardy dwarf shrubs and wildflowers. Some 2,000
varieties of flowering plants grow in Norway.
Species of reindeer, polar fox, polar hare,
wolf, musk-ox, and wolverine are common in the north and in the higher mountain
areas. Moose, deer, fox, otter, and marten are found in the south and southeast.
In the south large predatory animals, including wolf and bear, have been hunted
nearly to extinction. Game birds, such as grouse, thrive in the mountains and
valleys, and migratory seabirds breed on the shores of northern Norway. Both
freshwater and saltwater fishes abound. Salmon, trout, grayling, perch, and pike
are common in the streams and lakes. Herring, cod, halibut, haddock, mackerel,
and other species spawn in coastal waters. One of Norway’s most curious
inhabitants is the lemming, a small arctic rodent found in higher areas and in
the north. Periodically, when overpopulation of lemmings leads to food scarcity,
great hordes of the animals migrate to the lowlands in search of food, where
some unwittingly plunge to their deaths in the sea.
F | Natural Resources |
Norway has extensive waterpower resources.
During the 20th century Norwegians began to harness the vast power of the many
rivers that drain the country’s rugged mountain ranges to produce electricity.
Today, Norway generates large quantities of inexpensive hydroelectric power,
much of which is consumed by the country’s heavily energy-dependent
electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries.
Norway’s principal mineral resources are
petroleum and natural gas, which are extracted from the large reserves located
along the continental shelf of the North Sea. Other mineral resources include
modest amounts of iron ore, copper, zinc, and coal. Norway has Europe’s only
molybdenite mine and its greatest deposit of ilmenite. Commercially useful
deposits of chalk, dolomite, quartzite, graphite, and limestone are also found
in Norway.
Agricultural resources in Norway are in
short supply. Soils suitable for farming cover just 3 percent of Norway’s total
area and are located mainly in the vicinities of Trondheim and Oslo. Forests
cover more than one-quarter of Norway’s surface, and softwoods (mostly pine and
spruce) are the country’s most important timber resource, furnishing forest
products of many varieties for export. For centuries Norwegians have harvested
marine life from the surrounding seas, and the fishing industry remains a major
source of wealth for Norway.
G | Environmental Issues |
One of the most serious environmental
problems facing Norway is acid rain, a form of air pollution caused by
industrial activity. Much of Norway’s acid rain stems from sulfur dioxide
emissions originating mainly in the United Kingdom. Acid rain has damaged many
of Norway’s forests and waterways. Because the country’s surface water and soils
are especially susceptible to acidification, many Norwegian lakes can no longer
support fish. This is a serious concern because fish are one of Norway’s primary
food resources and a major export. Sulfur dioxide emissions have declined in
much of Europe since the implementation of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) Sulphur Protocols, beginning in the 1970s.
However, high levels of sulfur dioxide from abroad continue to adversely affect
Norway’s environment. Nitrogen oxide, the majority of which originates in other
countries, has also become a cause of significant air pollution. Norway itself
contributes relatively little air pollution to the atmosphere because it relies
heavily on hydroelectric power, an environmentally clean energy source.
The Norwegian government has shown
commitment to improving environmental health and conservation, and many of the
nation’s most pristine lands are protected in parks and reserves. Norway is
party to international treaties concerning air pollution, biodiversity, climate
change, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ship pollution,
and wetlands.
III | PEOPLE AND SOCIETY |
The population of Norway is 4,644,457 (2008
estimate). The Norwegians are a remarkably homogenous people of Germanic origin.
Apart from several thousand Saami and people of Finnish origin in the northern
part of Norway, the country has no large minority groups. Norway is home to
small numbers of Americans, Britons, Chileans, Danes, Iranians, Pakistanis,
Swedes, and Vietnamese, among other groups.
Norway has the lowest population density in
continental Europe, with 15 persons per sq km (39 per sq mi). Moreover, the
distribution of the population is extremely uneven. About half of the country’s
population lives in the southeast, and more than three-quarters of all
Norwegians live within about 16 km (about 10 mi) of the sea. Some 80 percent of
Norway’s population lives in urban areas. Almost all important settlements are
situated on, or within easy reach of, the coastline, which offers good
transportation links and a moderate climate. The high-lying interior regions are
largely uninhabited, apart from seasonal occupation by hunters and herders. In
recent decades the construction of new and improved road, rail, and air
transport facilities has opened some mountain areas to permanent
habitation.
Norway’s population is growing very slowly,
with an annual rate of increase of only 0.35 percent in 2008. The birth rate has
remained low and fairly steady since 1945, and death rates have declined due to
improved health measures and rising living standards. Today, life expectancy in
Norway is among the highest in the world: 83 years for women and 77 years for
men.
A | Principal Cities |
Oslo is the nation’s capital and the
principal port and industrial center. It is also the largest city, with an
estimated population of 536,209 in 2005 estimate. About one-fourth of the total
population of Norway lives in the vicinity of Oslo. Modern architecture
dominates the sprawling city, which covers hundreds of square kilometers and is
one of the world’s largest cities in area. Oslo is home to the Storting,
the national parliament; many cultural institutions, including the University of
Oslo; the Munch Museum, with paintings by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch; and the
Kon-Tiki Museum, with exhibits showcasing the voyages of the Norwegian
anthropologist and explorer Thor Heyerdahl.
Bergen, the cultural center of western
Norway and the second-largest city, has a population of 241,440. Bergen was once
an important port for the Hanseatic League, and it remains an important shipping
and transportation hub. Also called the “Gateway to the Fjords,” Bergen is the
center of Norway’s west coast tourism industry.
Trondheim (157,813), founded in AD 997
by Olaf I, was for many years the capital of the Viking kings. Norwegian
monarchs are still anointed at the majestic 11th-century Nidaros Cathedral—one
of Norway’s most popular tourism destinations—and the city is considered a
national shrine. A sheltered port serves the city, which lies amid a productive
agricultural area.
Other important cities are Stavanger
(114,936), former center of the Norwegian canning industry and now a base for
offshore oil and natural gas operations; and Tromsø (63,392), Norway’s gateway
to the Arctic.
B | Language |
Despite Norway’s ethnic homogeneity, two
distinct forms of the Norwegian language are spoken in the country. Both forms
of the language are officially recognized as equal, and both must be offered in
schools. The majority language, Bokmål (“book language”), is spoken by
more than 80 percent of the population and taught to about 83 percent of all
children in schools. Bokmål is a Norwegian form of the Danish language, which
was used by the administrative and educated elite while Norway was under Danish
rule (1397-1814). Nynorsk (New Norse) is taught to about 17 percent of
children in schools, mainly in rural western areas. It was developed in the 19th
century, as part of a Norwegian nationalist revival, from a synthesis of rural
dialects and medieval Old Norse. Efforts to merge Bokmål and Nynorsk into a
common tongue called Samnorsk (Common Norwegian) have made little
progress to date. Finno-Ugric Saami languages are spoken by the Saami people,
many of whom still inhabit their traditional lands in the far north.
C | Religion |
The Evangelical Lutheran Church (see
Lutheranism) is the national church of Norway. About 94 percent of the
population belongs to the church, although many are nonpracticing members. The
church is supported by the state, and the clergy is nominated by the king.
Salaries and pensions of the clergy are set by law and paid by the government.
Complete religious freedom is guaranteed by law, however. Other churches, mostly
Pentecostal and other Protestant congregations and Roman Catholic, represent
most of the non-Lutheran population. Norway is also home to a small Muslim
population (see Islam).
D | Education |
Compulsory education was established in
Norway in the late 19th century. Educational reforms implemented in the 1960s
and 1970s have reduced regional disparities and improved the quality of rural
schools by providing more hours of instruction and a broader selection of
courses. Norway has virtually no illiteracy.
Education is compulsory for children
between the ages of 6 and 16 and is provided by the state free of cost. For
their elementary education, children attend a six-year lower school, which
prescribes the same curriculum for all students. Students then attend a
three-year secondary school, which offers many elective courses. At age 16,
pupils who are qualified may attend a videregående skole (high school),
where a three-year course of study prepares them for a difficult matriculation
examination for the universities or for a vocational or technical occupation.
Norway also has a system of folk high schools, or rural boarding schools, which
provide courses in a wide variety of subjects for young adults who have
completed their compulsory studies.
Norway has four public universities and
ten colleges of university standing. The principal university is the University
of Oslo (founded 1811), which also hosts the Nobel peace prize ceremony in the
presence of the king of Norway (Nobel Prizes); the other universities are the
University of Bergen (1948), the University of Tromsø (1968), and the Norwegian
University of Science and Technology in Trondheim (1968). All colleges and
universities are state supported.
E | Social Structure |
A striking feature of Norwegian society
is a strong egalitarian outlook and the absence of conspicuous social divisions.
Great wealth is not obvious. There is little poverty and few slums or luxury
homes. Apart from forested areas, there are few large private landholdings in
Norway. Farming, forestry, and fishing are typically small-scale, seasonal,
family activities. Norway’s living standards are among the highest in
Europe.
Norwegians’ sense of equality stems from
the fact that feudalism was never thoroughly established in the country. For
centuries Norway was administered by a small class of civil servants whose rule
was neither tyrannical nor arbitrary. In the 20th century, Norwegians began to
use the economic power of the state as a leveling force, and a steeply graduated
tax on income helps fund the nation’s generous social services. Another leveling
influence is the strict control of housing, most of which is financed by a state
housing bank and constructed by cooperative housing associations.
Egalitarianism has a counterpart in
respect for, and compliance with, the law. Norwegian legal institutions date to
the early Middle Ages, when regional assemblies of freemen pronounced judgments
even against their kings. Norway’s modern criminal code is humane, and there are
comparatively few police. The equality of women in Norway is protected by law
and by custom. Women are well represented in professions such as law, teaching,
medicine, and the ministry. Most women with families work outside the home, in
part because of the prevalence of state-run child-care centers.
F | Way of Life |
The unity of the family has been a core
Norwegian trait since Viking times. In rural areas the family remains the most
important social unit. Ownership of an ancestral farm is protected by the
odelsrett, a practice that gives a family the right to repurchase
farmland even if it has recently been sold. Family members will make long
journeys to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations, and burials. This
closeness is frequently carried over into urban life.
Outdoor recreation plays a large role in
national life. Norwegians prize solitude and self-reliance, and many people
choose to walk or ski or camp alone. Swimming, sailing, fishing, and hunting are
other activities that have special appeal for Norwegians. Association football
(soccer) is widely played and attracts large audiences, as do the international
ski-jumping competitions at Holmenkollen near Oslo. In the Winter Olympic Games,
which Norway has hosted twice (Oslo, 1952; Lillehammer, 1994), Norwegians have
earned more medals than any other country.
Norwegian workers are entitled by law to
four weeks of paid annual holiday, and they are allowed to take three of those
weeks during the summer months. In addition, eight church holidays are observed
and widely used for recreation, along with the two national holidays—Labor Day
(May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17). When summer comes, a favorite—and
economical—form of holiday is found in retreating to the hytte, a simple
summer home in the mountains or by the sea.
G | Culture |
Norway retains a rich folk culture that
has roots in the Viking age (see Viking Art). During the 19th century a
renaissance of Norwegian culture occurred that was strongly influenced by
nationalism and romanticism. This renaissance drew on many stylistic and
thematic elements in western European culture as well as aspects unique to the
Norwegian experience, including the struggle for an independent identity and a
deep fascination with nature. Today, the Norwegian government plays an active
role in cultural preservation through its large collections of folk art and
music, and through state subsidies that provide grants to artists, fund
exhibitions and other cultural projects, and permit outright purchases of works
of art. State-supported schools teach traditional folk arts such as woodcarving,
ornamental painting, and tapestry.
Norway has produced some of the world’s
most famous explorers. The fearless Vikings preceded pioneers such as Fridtjof
Nansen, who in 1888 was the first person to cross Greenland, and Roald Amundsen,
who was the first to navigate the Northwest Passage and, in 1911, to reach the
South Pole. In 1947 Thor Heyerdahl set out to prove his theory that people from
South America had settled the islands of the South Pacific Ocean. He drifted
6,920 km (4,300 mi) from Peru to Polynesia on a balsa raft called the
Kon-Tiki.
G1 | Literature |
Norwegian literature goes back more
than 1,000 years. Poems and sagas (medieval Icelandic prose narratives)
produced from the 9th through the 13th centuries recorded the lives and
experiences of the Norwegian Vikings. The oldest Norwegian literature took the
form of poetry and includes eddic poetry (Poetic Edda), based on
legends and mythological figures, and skaldic poetry, produced mainly by
Norwegian court poets known as skalds. These poems, which offer valuable
information about Norse mythology and history, were transmitted orally and first
written down in the 13th century (See also Icelandic Literature).
Norwegian literary and cultural traditions waned following the union with
Denmark at the close of the 14th century and the growth of Danish influence.
A revival in Norwegian literature
occurred after Danish rule ended in the early 19th century, as part of a
nationalist movement to reassert an independent cultural identity.
Nineteenth-century Norwegian writers to achieve international prominence include
playwright Henrik Ibsen; novelists Jonas Lie and Alexander Kielland; and Nobel
Prize winning authors Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Knut Hamsun, and Sigrid Undset.
Important writers of the 20th century include poets Tarjei Vesaas and Stein
Mehren and novelists Sigurd Hoel, Johan Falkberget, and Dag Solstad.
G2 | Performing and Visual Arts |
The 19th-century renaissance of
Norwegian culture brought with it a great flowering across the arts. Early
expressions of a truly Norwegian style were produced in music by the composer
Edvard Grieg and on canvas by the painter Johan Christian Dahl. Grieg achieved
international renown for composing a memorable suite to Peer Gynt, Henrik
Ibsen’s famous verse drama.
Other important Norwegian artists of
the 19th and 20th centuries include composers Christian Sinding and Arne
Nordheim; painters Adolph Tidemand and Edvard Munch, who introduced
expressionism to Norway; and sculptor Gustav Vigeland, whose sculpture park in
Oslo has gained international attention.
Norway has a small government-subsidized film industry that produces
several feature films and dozens of documentaries or short films annually. A
film festival is held annually in Haugesund.
G3 | Cultural Institutions |
Oslo is the undisputed cultural center
of Norway. Bergen, Trondheim, and Stavanger are important regional centers. The
country’s largest art museum is the National Gallery in Oslo. Natural history
museums are located in Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, and Tromsø. Many
other museums display artifacts of regional and national culture. The most
notable of these is the Norwegian Folk Museum in Oslo. The Viking Museum in Oslo
houses an amazingly well preserved 9th century ship in which a Viking
queen was buried.
The municipal library system in
Norway, begun in the early 20th century, is patterned after the United States
model. In addition, the state maintains specialized libraries, including the
University of Oslo Library, which was established in 1811 and long served as the
national library. A new National Library, separate from the university library,
opened in Oslo in 1999. Also important is the National Archives in Oslo.
Performing-arts organizations include
the National Theater and the national ballet and opera, all in Oslo, and the
National Stage in Bergen. The Oslo Philharmonic is the principal orchestra;
other permanent orchestras are in Bergen and Trondheim. Since 1953 Bergen has
held an annual international music festival.
IV | ECONOMY |
A | Overview |
Before the 20th century, most Norwegians
made a living by farming, forestry, or fishing. Norway rapidly industrialized
during the 20th century. Until the 1970s, this industrial expansion was based
mainly on the exploitation of Norway’s vast waterpower resources and the
materials provided by Norway’s farms, forests, and seas. During the 1970s,
offshore drilling for petroleum and natural gas in Norway’s sector of the North
Sea expanded rapidly, providing valuable new resources for industrial growth.
Norway’s economy has since grown dependent on oil and natural gas production and
is subject to fluctuations in international oil prices.
Norway’s standard of living has increased
steadily since World War II. Taxes have also increased. Norwegians pay about
half of their income directly or indirectly to the government, making Norwegians
among the highest taxed of all Europeans. At the same time, Norway’s growing
prosperity, driven in part by the exploitation of North Sea oil and gas
reserves, has allowed the country to enlarge its already extensive social
welfare system. Today, Norwegians enjoy one of the highest per capita standards
of living in the world; estimated gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in
2006 was $71,874.50. In 2006 Norway’s GDP was $334.9 billion.
Norway depends heavily on foreign trade
and therefore advocates free trade. However, Norway has shown reluctance to
forge closer bonds with other countries. Part of this reluctance stems from
Norway’s desire to preserve its unique social democratic institutions as well as
its small-scale agricultural and fishing operations. Norway was a founding
member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA, established in 1960). But
Norwegian voters have consistently rejected membership in the European Union
(EU). As an EFTA member, however, Norway is permitted to participate in a
free-trade zone called the European Economic Area (EEA). With the exception of
the fishing and agricultural sectors, this allows Norway full access to the EU’s
large internal market.
B | The Government’s Role in the Economy |
Norway’s economy is a mixed one of public
and private enterprises. Although the economy is based on free-market
principles, the government exercises considerable supervision and control. The
state owns railroads and most of the public utilities, and state-owned
enterprises largely control the vital oil and natural gas sectors. However,
private industry is free to compete directly with state-owned enterprises in
various fields, such as hydroelectricity. The government also holds investments
in some companies that are privately operated, including Norsk Hydro, a leading
producer of oil and metals. Other industries are entirely privately owned. All
industries are subject to strict government regulations to protect the health
and safety of workers and the environment.
The Norwegian government actively
supports the nation’s industrial development. After World War II (1939-1945) the
state took a lead role in promoting construction of power centers and industrial
plants. Norway’s rate of domestic investment remains one of the highest in the
world. The state works with the banking sector to channel financial resources
and loans to various industries. In addition, about 2 percent of the nation’s
GDP is invested in research and development to promote new industries and
industrial processes in the areas of biotechnology, information technology,
metallurgy, and other fields.
C | Labor |
In 2006 Norway had a total employed labor
force of 2.6 million. Labor was distributed among the various economic sectors
as follows: services, 76 percent; industry, 21 percent; and agriculture,
forestry, and fishing, 3 percent. Norwegian labor is well organized; about
two-thirds of the labor force belongs to unions. The Norwegian Federation of
Trade Unions comprises 28 national unions with a total of about 780,000 members;
the Co-operative Union and Wholesale Society represents 570,000 members.
Unemployment in Norway is low compared to other members of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); it stood at 4.4 percent in
2004.
D | Agriculture |
Agriculture accounts for just 2 percent of
the annual GDP. Because of the mountainous terrain and generally poor soils,
only 3 percent of the total land area is cultivated. The most important
agricultural regions are the eastern valleys north of Oslo and the areas around
Trondheim. Most farms are small and are worked by their owners and their
families. Despite difficult conditions, farmers achieve high yields through
mechanization and intensive use of fertilizers. Some farmland is so steep that
tractors are impractical and farmers use power-operated cables to pull their
plows.
The most important agricultural products
in Norway are dairy products and cereal grains. More than half of the land under
cultivation is meadow and pasture, most of which is planted with hay. Other
important crops include oats, potatoes, barley, and corn. Norway must import
about half of the grain needed to feed its livestock. The main livestock raised
include cattle, hogs, sheep, and domestic fowl. Norway produces all of the meat
and dairy products it needs and some of its vegetable and fruit
requirements.
E | Forestry |
The Norwegian forestry industry accounts
for a relatively small proportion of Norway’s yearly GDP. More than one-fourth
of Norway is forested, with the densest woodlands in the east, where most of the
timber is felled. In 2006 annual timber production totaled 8.6 million cu m (303
million cu ft), most of which was spruce and pine.
Forestry work is seasonal and usually
lasts from November to April. Two-thirds of the forests are privately owned, but
all forests operate under close government supervision. The government
subsidizes the planting of new trees.
F | Fishing |
An important source of wealth for Norway
is its fishing industry. Norway is one of the world’s leading fishing nations,
accounting for about 3 percent of the world’s total catch. The nation’s large
fishing fleet has an expansive catch area that extends to the banks of
Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada. Since the early 1970s, the government has
helped finance the development of a fish-farming industry (particularly of
salmon and sea trout). The total yearly marine catch in 2005 was about 3.2
million metric tons. Important species caught include capelin, herring,
mackerel, cod, sand lance (sand eel), pollock, salmon, and prawns.
Norway paused commercial whaling in 1988,
following a moratorium on the practice issued by the International Whaling
Commission (IWC). However, Norway resumed commercial hunting of the minke whale
in 1993. As a member of the IWC, Norway has consistently resisted efforts to ban
the slaughter of whales. Today, the Norwegian government sets a yearly quota of
whales that can be killed based on estimates of the whale population.
G | Mining |
Before offshore drilling for petroleum and
natural gas began in the 1970s, mining was relatively unimportant in Norway, and
the country had to import most of its fossil fuels. This sector now accounts for
about one-eighth of Norway’s GDP; the percentage in any given year depends on
world oil and gas prices.
Large petroleum and natural gas reserves
were first discovered in Norwegian areas of the North Sea in the late 1960s, and
petroleum production began on a trial basis in 1971. In 1974 a pipeline was
completed to carry crude oil to Teesside in northeastern England. By 1975 Norway
was producing enough petroleum to satisfy all of its domestic needs and also to
export large quantities to Europe. By 2004 annual crude petroleum production was
1.04 billion barrels; natural gas production was 73.4 billion cu m (2,592
billion cu ft). Natural gas is piped to both Scotland and Germany. Today, Norway
is the world’s third largest exporter of petroleum, behind Saudi Arabia and
Russia, and one of the world’s top exporters of natural gas.
Other mineral products of Norway include
iron ore, lead concentrates, titanium, pyrite, coal, zinc, and copper. The
largest iron mines are located at Sydvaranger, near the border with Russia. Coal
is mined in the Svalbard archipelago.
H | Manufacturing |
Manufacturing accounts for 9 percent of
the annual GDP. The electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries form an
important sector of manufacturing. These industries need an abundance of
inexpensive electrical power, which Norway’s well-developed waterpower resources
can supply. Although the raw materials for aluminum—one of the chief products of
the country’s electrometallurgical industry—must be imported, Norway produces
about 4 percent of the world’s supply of refined aluminum. It is also an
important producer of ferroalloys. A major product of the electrochemical
industry is nitrogenous fertilizer, produced from nitrogen that is extracted
from the air using large amounts of electricity.
Norway was traditionally a major
shipbuilding nation, but by the mid-1980s Norway’s share of the world’s new
shipping capacity had declined to less than 1 percent. Shipbuilding contracted
dramatically in the late 1970s as the industry encountered financial problems;
many shipyards have since shifted some of their capacity to the production of
equipment for the oil and gas fields. Other major manufactures include
confections and processed fish, chemicals, paper, machinery, and electronic
goods. The country has several petroleum refineries and a major integrated iron
and steel plant at Mo i Rana, which is situated near the Arctic Circle.
About half of Norway’s manufacturing
occurs in the counties surrounding Oslo. However, manufacturing facilities are
located in many parts of the country, especially along coastal areas. Factories
are typically small, and few enterprises employ more than 500 people.
I | Services |
Services contribute 54 percent of
Norway’s annual GDP. Services encompass a broad economic sector that includes
public administration, banking and financial services, wholesale and retail
trade, and the hotel and restaurant business, among other activities.
I1 | Currency and Banking |
The basic monetary unit of Norway is
the Norwegian krone. The krone is divided into 100 øre. The
central bank is the Bank of Norway (established in 1816), which is the sole bank
of issue.
I2 | Foreign Trade |
The composition and flow of Norway’s
export trade changed dramatically in the 1970s with the development of North Sea
petroleum and natural gas reserves. Today, Norway is Europe’s largest exporter
of these two products, which together normally account for between one-third and
one-half of the country’s total annual exports. Other important exports include
nonferrous metals, primarily aluminum; food products, particularly fish;
chemicals and related products; paper; and iron and steel. In 2004 exports were
valued at $80.5 billion; the main recipients were the United Kingdom, Germany,
the Netherlands, France, Sweden, and the United States. Leading imports include
machinery, transportation equipment, chemicals, clothing and accessories, iron
and steel, and metal ores. Imports were valued at $47.4 billion; chief suppliers
were Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, and
the United States.
I3 | Tourism |
By the late 20th century a vigorous
tourism industry had emerged in Norway, despite the nation’s comparatively high
prices, and the country has seen a steady rise in the number of annual visitors.
Most of Norway’s visitors come from the United Kingdom and continental Europe.
In summer, when the days are pleasant and long, Norway’s coastal ports are a
popular destination, especially among the many visitors who arrive by cruise
ship or ferry. Other visitors are drawn to Norway’s historic sites, including
its Viking museums and medieval stave churches. Norway’s scores of ski resorts
and vast network of cross-country ski trails attract many winter tourists.
J | Infrastructure |
J1 | Energy |
Norway has the most developed waterpower
resources of any country in Europe. Its hydroelectricity is the least expensive
and its per capita consumption among the highest in the world. Development of
this resource began in the early 20th century, and by 1960 Norway was exporting
hydroelectricity to Sweden. Today, Norway obtains about three-quarters of its
total energy requirements from electricity, virtually all of which is generated
by waterpower. Electricity production in 2003 was 106 billion kilowatt-hours.
Most of Norway’s hydroelectric
installations are built deep in the mountains. Tunnels, blasted through miles of
rock, carry water from interior lakes to the mountain turbines. About
one-quarter of this power is used for Norwegian homes, farms, and shops or is
exported. The remaining three-quarters is used to power Norway’s major
industries.
J2 | Transportation |
Building roads and railroads is
difficult and expensive in Norway because of the rugged terrain, and in much of
the country water traffic is still vitally important. Norway is served by a road
network of 91,916 km (57,114 mi), of which about one-third are national main
roads. The road network is densest in the southeast. Railroads are state
operated and have a total length of about 4,000 km (about 2,500 mi), more than
half of which is electrified. Coastal transport, of both passengers and freight,
is especially important in the west and north. The coastal towns of Bergen (in
the southwest) and Kirkenes (near the Russian border) are linked by daily boat
service. Oslo is the country’s principal port. The Norwegian merchant marine,
with 1,490 vessels of 1,000 gross tons or more, is one of the largest in the
world. It is an important source of foreign-exchange earnings. International and
domestic air service is also well developed. The country has dozens of airports,
with Gardermoen, the main international airport, located just north of
Oslo.
J3 | Communications |
Until 1981 radio and television
broadcasting in Norway were monopolized by the state agency NRK. Since then, a
growing number of privately owned radio and television broadcasters have
competed with NRK, attracting substantial audiences. Norway has one of the
world’s highest rates of newspaper readership, with most households receiving
more than one paper. The newspaper industry is heavily subsidized by the
government. In the past most major daily newspapers were associated with
political parties; today, they are largely independent but they remain openly
partisan. Important dailies include VG, Aftenposten, and
Dagbladet.
Until 1998 the Norwegian state
maintained a monopoly on the telecommunications industry. The industry was
deregulated to meet requirements for participating in the single market of the
European Union (EU). The state still owns most of the telecommunications
infrastructure, but private companies—from small local companies to
international telecommunications giants—are now permitted to offer services in a
competitive marketplace.
V | GOVERNMENT |
Norway is a constitutional monarchy, with a
monarch as head of state and a democratically elected government. The
constitution was enacted on May 17, 1814. Although this document has been
amended many times, the principal features remain unchanged.
The Norwegian monarchy is hereditary and
descends to the oldest royal child. The monarch’s formal powers are nominal. The
monarch makes all governmental appointments on the recommendation of the party
or coalition in power, provides a dignified presence on ceremonial occasions,
and presides at formal weekly meetings of the government. The monarch may not
dissolve the government.
A | Executive |
Executive power is exercised by a prime
minister on behalf of the monarch. The prime minister, who is formally appointed
by the monarch, is usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the
parliament. The cabinet, called the Council of State, consists of the prime
minister and about 19 ministers who head the chief ministries. The cabinet is
collectively responsible for administration policy, although each minister
retains the right of public dissent on any specific issue. Cabinet ministers
must be approved by the majority party or coalition in the parliament. Ministers
are entitled to take part in parliamentary debates but may not vote. Civil
service posts are filled by competitive examination.
B | Legislative |
Legislative power resides with the
parliament, called the Storting. It consists of 169 members elected by a
system of proportional representation to four-year terms. All citizens aged 18
and older may vote in elections. At its first meeting the Storting elects
roughly one-quarter of its members to an upper house, the Lagting, and
the remainder to the lower house, the Odelsting. The two chambers are
chosen so that the same party strength is maintained in each chamber, preserving
representation of all parties based on their electoral performance.
All new bills, usually part of the
cabinet’s program, are presented by a member of the Odelsting. If passed by the
Odelsting, the bill is then considered by the Lagting. If the Lagting rejects
the bill, the Odelsting may press for passage a second time. If the two houses
still disagree, the full Storting meets and a two-thirds vote is required to
pass the bill. The Storting also considers budget proposals, constitutional
amendments, and important financial and political questions that are not new
bills. Amendments to the constitution require approval by a two-thirds majority
of the Storting in two successive sittings.
C | Judiciary |
Norway’s highest court is the Supreme
Court, or Høyesterett, consisting of a president and 17 judges. Cases are
heard by a panel of five justices.
Below the Supreme Court are five regional
courts of appeal, the Lagmannsrett. These lower courts, which are
composed of three judges each, hear both civil and criminal cases. Below the
regional courts are town and district courts, each headed by a professional
magistrate, who may be assisted by lay judges. Each town also has a local
mediation council (forliksraad), elected by the municipal council, to
settle a wide range of civil cases. If mediation fails, the case is appealed to
a higher court. Apart from mediation councils, all judges are appointed by the
monarch. Norway abolished capital punishment for all crimes in 1979.
D | Local Government |
Norway is divided into 19 counties
(fylker), consisting of the city of Oslo and 18 large county areas. Each
of the counties is governed by an elected county council. The counties are in
turn divided into rural and urban districts, each of which has an elected
governing council. Local governments have broad powers to collect taxes, to
build schools and roads, and to provide social services. The police, however,
are under the national ministry of justice.
E | Political Parties |
The Labor Party, which advocates a moderate
form of socialism, has played a leading role in Norwegian politics and has
governed almost continuously since 1935. Although the Labor platform has called
for a planned economy and government control of major industries, Norway’s mixed
economy allows for extensive private ownership of industry and capital. Other
major parties include the Conservative Party, which promotes free enterprise and
lower taxation; the populist, anti-immigration far-right Progress Party; the
Center Party, which favors the decentralization of decision-making in Norway and
is an outspoken opponent of Norway’s membership in the European Union (EU); the
Christian People’s Party, a centrist, antiabortion party advocating Christian
principles in politics; and the far-left Socialist Left Party. Minority parties
include the center-left Liberal Party; the Coastal Party, which promotes fishing
interests; and the Norwegian Communist Party.
The Norwegian Communist Party has all but
disappeared in the wake of the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR). Consequently, electoral support for the Socialist Left Party
has increased as former Communists have joined its ranks. Increased support for
centrist politics in Norway has strengthened the Christian People’s Party, which
has been a leading party in nonsocialist coalition governments.
F | Social Welfare |
Norway is a pioneer in social welfare
legislation and today offers its citizens one of the most comprehensive systems
in the world. Health insurance is mandatory for all people, with the state, the
employer, and the individual all contributing to the health fund. Almost all
medical care is free, including prenatal and maternity care, and free day care
is available for children of working mothers. A compulsory National Pension
Scheme that was put into effect in 1967 provides old-age, disability,
rehabilitation, widow, widower, and other benefits, including one-year paid
maternity leave and universal child support. The average pension, which begins
at age 67, corresponds to about two-thirds of recipients’ earnings during their
highest-paid years.
G | Defense |
The principle of universal military service
has long been accepted in Norway. A 12-month term in the army or a 15-month term
in the navy or air force is compulsory for all male citizens when they reach the
age of 19. In 2004 the armed forces had a combined strength of 25,800 members.
Most military forces are posted in the north. A home guard, with a strength of
about 85,000, is trained for special tasks in local areas. Norway is a member of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which the country joined in
1949.
H | International Relations |
Norway, like Denmark, departed from
Scandinavia’s tradition of neutrality to become a member of NATO. However,
Norway did not follow Denmark into the European Economic Community, now the
European Union (EU). Norway helped establish the trading bloc known as the
European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960, and today the organization
serves as a platform that permits Norway and other EFTA members to trade freely
with EU countries (see European Economic Area). With the other
Scandinavian countries and Iceland, Norway belongs to the Nordic Council,
founded in 1953 to foster economic, social, legal, and cultural cooperation.
Norway is a member of the United Nations (UN) and maintains a small peacekeeping
force for use under UN auspices.
VI | HISTORY |
A | Earliest Peoples |
Archaeological records indicate that
Norway was inhabited as early as 10,000 bc by a Paleolithic hunting people.
These ancient hunters are believed to have migrated to Scandinavia as the great
glaciers that once buried the region receded, toward the end of the last ice
age. Agriculture and the use of domesticated animals appeared in Norway around
4000 bc. The transition from Stone
Age to Bronze Age tools and more elaborate burial customs occurred in Norway
about 1500 bc, and by 500 bc Norway had entered the early Iron
Age. During the era of the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had trade
contacts with Roman-occupied Gaul, and the area of settlement increased rapidly.
Runic writing, a Germanic alphabet developed in the 2nd or 3rd century ad, appeared in Scandinavia at that time
along with migrating Germanic peoples.
These new arrivals made their homes on
the shores of the large lakes and along the jagged coast, and they spoke a
language that would become the mother tongue of the later Scandinavian
languages. They also brought with them a vibrant new religion with militaristic
gods led by Odin and Thor as well as settlement patterns that would soon evolve
into extended family farms. Mountains and fjords formed natural boundaries
around most of the settled areas. In time social life in the separate
settlements came to be dominated by an aristocracy and, eventually, by petty
kings. By the time of the first historical records of Scandinavia, about the 8th
century ad, some 29 small kingdoms
existed in Norway.
B | The Viking Period |
Inevitably, the kings turned their
attention to the sea, the easiest way to communicate and trade with the outside
world. About ad 800 ships of war
were being built and sent on raiding expeditions, initiating the era of the
Vikings. The northern sea rovers were traders, colonizers, and explorers as well
as plunderers. After about 865 they established settlements in the British Isles
and Iceland, and in the Orkney, Faroe, and Shetland islands. A century later,
about 985, Erik the Red led Vikings to Greenland from Iceland; his son, Leif
Eriksson, was one of the first Europeans to explore North America, reaching the
continent about 1000. Bands of the northern Vikings penetrated Russia. Others
settled in France, where they became the ancestors of the Normans of Normandy
(Normandie).
In the 9th century King Harald I, called
The Fairhaired, of Vestfold (southeastern Norway) made the first successful
attempt to form a united Norwegian kingdom. Succeeding to the throne of Vestfold
as a child, Harald managed to establish his supremacy over all Norway shortly
before 900. However, at Harald’s death, about 940, his sons divided Norway, with
Eric Bloodaxe as overking. Dissensions and wars among the heirs disrupted the
temporary unity, and many of the petty rulers refused to surrender their
independence. In addition to the domestic struggles, Danish and Swedish kings
were undertaking campaigns to acquire Norwegian territory.
C | Christianity Introduced |
Christian missionaries traveled in Viking
lands as early as AD 825, when
Saint Anskar visited trading centers in Sweden and Denmark. Conversions from
paganism to Christianity were infrequent, however, until the end of the
900s.
In 995 Olaf I, a great-grandson of Harald
I, became king of Norway. Before his accession Olaf had lived in England, where
he had converted to Christianity. He took the throne with the firm purpose of
forcing Christianity on Norway and he partially succeeded. Five years after his
accession he was killed in battle, and Norway was divided for a short time.
Norway was reunited by Olaf II, who made himself king of Norway in 1015. He
continued the religious work of his predecessor, using force against those who
refused a Christian baptism. Olaf established a national Christian church in
Norway, and he built churches throughout the land.
By about 1025 Olaf II had become more
powerful than any preceding Norwegian king. He aroused the anger of powerful
nobles, who, together with Canute II (the Great), king of England and Denmark,
drove Olaf into exile in Russia in 1028. Two years later Olaf returned to Norway
and was killed in the Battle of Stiklestad. Although a Viking king, he was seen
as a martyr for the church. He was canonized as Norway’s patron saint, following
reports of miracles associated with him.
D | Native Kings |
On the death of Canute in 1035, Olaf’s
son, Magnus I, was invited to return from Russia to Norway by supporters of his
father. For the next three centuries a succession of native kings ruled Norway.
Although internal confusion and wars between rival claimants to the throne
disrupted the country periodically, Norway gradually emerged as a united nation,
enjoying a comparative prosperity brought by its great trading fleets.
The Norwegians had become strongly
Christian, and a powerful clergy was one of the major influences in the kingdom.
In 1046 Magnus proclaimed his uncle Harald Hårdråde a coruler. At the death of
Magnus one year later, Harald became king as Harald III; he was killed while
participating in the Norman conquest of England in 1066. Harald’s death brought
to an end the Viking period, as no further raiding from Scandinavia took place.
The last king of the line of Harald III was Sigurd I, whose rule lasted until
his death in 1103.
Dynastic conflict followed the death of
Sigurd, as Norway’s kings fought the jarls, or nobles, who threatened
their power. Of the many later kings, the most notable was Sverre, king from
1184 to 1202. A statesman of great ability, Sverre built a strong monarchy and
considerably weakened the power of the clergy and the great nobles. A period of
peaceful and productive rule ensued during the long reign of Håkon IV
(1217-1263), Sverre’s grandson.
Under Håkon IV, Norway reached the apex
of its medieval prosperity and political and cultural power. Iceland was added
to the kingdom in 1262, and the organization of a central government was
completed, greatly increasing royal authority. Overseas trade flourished during
this period. The landed aristocracy was virtually crushed by Håkon V, who
reigned from 1299 to 1319, and Oslo became the capital of Norway, replacing
Bergen as the principal city of the kingdom. Afterward the old noble families
gradually declined, and for the most part the Norwegian people became a nation
of peasants. The Hanseatic League, a powerful federation of German merchants and
cities that supplied Norway’s grain, gradually entrenched itself in Bergen. This
development foreshadowed a decline of the Norwegian merchant class, as the
German traders secured privileges and came to control commercial activities.
Håkon V died in 1319 without male heirs,
giving the throne to King Magnus II of Sweden, the three-year-old son of Håkon’s
daughter. In 1343 Magnus was succeeded by his son, Håkon VI, and in 1380 the
latter’s son, Oluf III, king of Denmark, became king of Norway as Olaf IV. The
young king exercised only nominal rule, with real power held by his mother,
Margaret I. When he died, he was succeeded by his mother as ruler of Norway and
Denmark and, in 1389, of Sweden also. To obtain German support against the dukes
of Mecklenburg, who claimed the Swedish throne, Margaret had her grandnephew,
Eric of Pomerania, elected king.
E | Union with Denmark and Sweden |
By the Union of Kalmar in 1397, the
kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were made a single administrative unit.
Sweden and Denmark were larger and wealthier than Norway, which had lost much of
its population and many of its farms in the mid-14th century during an outbreak
of bubonic plague called the Black Death. In 1523 Sweden dropped out of the
union, and Norway was increasingly treated as an appendage of the Danish
crown.
In the wake of the introduction of
Lutheranism as a state religion in Norway by Danish king Christian III in 1536,
Norway became a province of Denmark. Norwegian culture came increasingly under
Danish domination. The creation of a hereditary monarchy in Denmark in 1660 and
the establishment of royal absolutism weakened the nobility and increased the
administrative role of the state in political and economic affairs. However, the
long-term impact of absolutism was generally benign, in contrast to the despotic
forms it took in many other European states. During the subsequent centuries of
Danish rule, Norway contributed its natural resources to building up the dual
monarchy of Denmark-Norway. In particular, timber from Norwegian forests was
exported to western Europe, and Norway developed an impressive shipping industry
to carry on the trade.
The union with Denmark lasted until the
Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815), when Denmark joined France against Britain—Norway’s
primary trading partner. Britain quickly cut off trade with Norway, and the
British navy blockaded Norwegian ports. The blockade led to a period of great
hardship in Norway, but it also isolated the country from Denmark, and
Norwegians began to assert control over their own affairs.
After the defeat of Napoleon I in 1814,
Denmark was compelled to sign the Treaty of Kiel, ceding Norway to the king of
Sweden—an ally of Britain against France. The Norwegians, however, disavowed the
treaty. They declared themselves an independent kingdom, drew up a liberal
constitution, and offered the throne to the Danish crown prince Christian
Frederick (later Christian VIII of Denmark). The Norwegian move was opposed by
the European powers, and the head of an army, Marshal Jean Bernadotte, later
King Charles XIV John, persuaded Norway to accept the Treaty of Kiel. In return
for its cooperation, Norway was allowed to retain the newly promulgated
constitution. By the Act of Union of 1815, Norway was given its own army, navy,
customs, and parliament (Storting), and was permitted full liberty and
autonomy within its own boundaries.
F | Second Union with Sweden |
After 1815 the Storting was chiefly
occupied with stabilizing and improving the financial condition of Norway and in
implementing and guarding its newly won self-governance. Despite the bitter
opposition of Swedish king Charles XIV John, an autocratic monarch, the
Norwegian legislature passed a law in 1821 abolishing the titles of the
nobility. The Storting held that the true Norwegian nobles were the peasant
descendants of the medieval barons. Norwegian nationalism increased, and the
Storting complained that Swedish treatment of Norway was inconsistent with the
spirit of the Act of Union and with the status of Norway as a coequal state. In
1839 Charles XIV John appointed a joint committee of Swedes and Norwegians to
revise the wording of the Act of Union. King Charles died in 1844, before the
committee submitted its report. His son, Oscar I, admitted the justice of many
Norwegian claims, and he granted Norway a national flag for its navy, although
the flag bore the symbol of union with Sweden.
G | Rising Nationalism |
A liberal movement in Norwegian politics,
which accompanied the surge of nationalism, became more pronounced after the
revolutions of 1848 in the major countries of Europe. Political nationalism was
bolstered by intellectual and cultural nationalism. Norwegian folktales and folk
songs were collected and arranged and became highly popular. Norwegian
dictionaries, histories, and grammars were compiled. The literary renaissance
included such writers as Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Jonas Lie, and
Alexander Kielland.
When, in 1860, Sweden began to propose
revisions in the Act of Union designed to enhance its power, the two greatest
Norwegian political parties—the Lawyers Party and the Peasant Party—combined to
form the liberal Venstre (Left) Party and blocked the revisions. Led by
Johan Sverdrup, president of the Storting, the Norwegian legislature engaged in
a long struggle with King Oscar II of Sweden over the issue of whether the king
or the Storting would choose the cabinet (executive) in Norway. Under
established tradition, the cabinet was responsible only to the Swedish king,
giving the crown a permanent veto on legislation. Oscar was forced to yield in
1884, following the impeachment of his members from the Norwegian cabinet and
their removal from office. Afterward, Oscar appointed Sverdrup to lead the first
government responsible to the Storting, and Norway became a parliamentary
democracy.
Once Norway had attained control over
executive power, Norwegians demanded their own foreign minister to negotiate on
behalf of the country. This was seen in Sweden as a threat to the authority of
the king, and Sweden refused to capitulate. As a substitute policy, however,
Norway demanded a separate consular service (to regulate Norway’s international
economic and commercial relations) and a Norwegian flag for its merchant marine
without the symbol of union. The flag was approved by Sweden in 1898, but Sweden
balked at the demand for a consular service. Finally, in 1905, led by Prime
Minister Christian Michelsen, the Storting declared the union with Sweden
dissolved. In a plebiscite in August 1905 the Norwegian people voted
overwhelmingly for separation from Sweden. The Swedish Riksdag
(legislature) ratified the separation in October. A month later Prince Carl of
Denmark accepted the Norwegian crown as Håkon VII.
H | Independence |
The Norwegian government, dominated by
ministers with liberal politics, quickly became one of the most progressive in
Europe in matters such as unemployment insurance benefits, old-age pensions, and
liberal laws concerning divorce and illegitimacy. In 1913 Norwegian women
achieved the right to vote in all national elections. In addition, new laws were
passed to restrain foreign investment in Norway. The achievement of complete
political independence coincided with the beginning of industrialization spurred
by the development of waterpower and hydroelectricity. During the early 20th
century the Norwegian merchant marine expanded its fleet of steam-powered ships,
and Norwegian whaling vessels led the exploitation of waters around
Antarctica.
I | Norway During the World Wars |
After the beginning of World War I in 1914
the sovereigns of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark agreed to maintain the neutrality
of the Scandinavian countries and to cooperate for their mutual interest. This
policy of neutrality and friendship continued as the joint policy of all three
nations after the war ended. The world economic depression that began in 1929
affected Norway considerably because of the country’s dependence on
international commerce. In 1935 the Labor Party was elected to power and it
continued the policies of progressive liberalism that had dominated Norwegian
politics since 1905.
Norway maintained its traditional
neutrality when World War II began in 1939. Despite sympathy for Finland during
the Russo-Finnish phase of the conflict, Norway rejected an Anglo-French demand
for transit of troops to aid Finland. Germany’s maritime warfare along the
Norwegian coast, however, made neutrality increasingly difficult. On April 8,
1940, the United Kingdom and France announced that they had mined Norwegian
territorial waters to prevent their use by German supply ships. The next day
German forces invaded Norway, occupying all the major cities and important ports
in a well-coordinated and long-planned assault.
Within three weeks German troops had
fanned out into the hinterland, dispersing the isolated Norwegian forces that
remained. King Håkon VII and his cabinet, after an unsuccessful attempt at
resistance, fled to the United Kingdom in June, where they continued to direct
the merchant marine and a small infantry, navy, and air force. The Storting had
empowered the king and the cabinet to exercise sovereignty from abroad, and for
five years thereafter, London was the seat of the Norwegian government-in-exile.
Political leaders in Norway refused to
cooperate in any way with Josef Terboven, the German commissioner. In September
1940 Terboven dissolved all political parties except the fascist and pro-German
Nasjonal Samling (National Union), which had never won a seat in the
Storting. Terboven set up a governing council composed of National Union members
and other German sympathizers, and announced the abolition of the monarchy and
the Storting. In 1942 Germany installed a puppet government in Norway under
National Union leader Vidkun Quisling. However, resistance to the Germans and to
the puppet regime was widespread. As the Norwegian opposition became more
organized, general strikes and other forms of passive resistance gave way to
large-scale industrial sabotage and espionage on behalf of the Allied Powers.
Germany’s response, which included declarations of martial law and death
sentences for conspirators, did little to contain the resistance.
The leaders of the resistance in Norway
cooperated closely with the government-in-exile in London, preparing for
eventual liberation. The German forces in Norway finally surrendered on May 8,
1945, and King Håkon returned to Norway in June. The immediate tasks facing
Norway were reconstruction of an economy that had been stripped of its resources
and the prosecution of about 90,000 alleged cases of treason and defection. To
punish traitors, capital punishment, abolished in 1876, was restored (it was
subsequently abolished again in 1979). Quisling—whose name has since become
synonymous with treason—along with 23 other Norwegians, was tried and executed.
The government-in-exile resigned after order was reestablished.
J | Labor Governments |
J1 | Postwar Reconstruction |
In the general elections of October
1945, the Labor Party won a majority of votes, bringing to power a Labor cabinet
headed by Einar Gerhardsen. The party remained in power for the next 20 years.
Under its stewardship, Norway developed into a social democracy and welfare
state, became a charter member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, participated
in the European Recovery Program in 1947, and joined the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1949. NATO membership, by which Norway abandoned its
traditional neutrality, was tacitly approved by the Norwegian people in the
elections of October 1949.
The Norwegian economy came out of the
war badly damaged by German exploitation and by domestic sabotage; retreating
German troops burned many northern towns. Reconstruction began at once, directed
by the Labor government. The government soon took over the planning of the
entire economy in order to strengthen Norway’s position in international markets
and redistribute the national wealth along more egalitarian lines. Subsidies
were given to various industries and price controls were imposed on goods and
services. Within three years, Norwegian gross domestic product (GDP) had reached
its prewar level. This development was accompanied by new social legislation
that greatly increased the welfare of the citizens. In 1959 Norway became one of
the founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), a trading
bloc that went into force the following year.
J2 | Declining Support for Labor |
The parliamentary elections held in
September 1961 resulted in the failure of the Labor Party to win a majority of
seats for the first time since World War II, although it kept its place as the
leading party. Gerhardsen, who had been prime minister since the end of the war,
except for an interval from 1951 to 1955, was designated once again to head the
cabinet. In 1965 the Labor Party was defeated in general elections, ending a
30-year period of rule. King Olaf V, who had succeeded Håkon VII on the latter’s
death in 1957, then asked Per Borten, leader of the Center Party, to form a
government as head of a coalition of nonsocialist parties. Norway’s economic
policies, however, did not markedly change. Norway instituted a comprehensive
social security program in 1967.
Although it was not obvious at the
time, the Labor Party’s defeat in 1965 had closed an era in Norwegian history.
The dominance of the Labor Party was at an end. Although it would continue to be
Norway’s largest party, Labor would no longer be able to achieve majority status
on its own. The succeeding decades of the 20th century would be characterized by
coalition governments and conflict over Norway’s place within Europe.
K | Political Shifts and Internal Divisions |
In 1970 Norway applied for membership in
the European Community (EC), now called the European Union (EU), a move that
split the citizenry and government. Many Norwegians opposed membership, fearing
that their fishing, farming, and other industries would be at a competitive
disadvantage. The following year Per Borten resigned after charges surfaced that
he had divulged confidential information. Trygve Bratteli of the Labor Party
then formed a minority government that campaigned strongly for EC membership. In
a referendum in 1972, however, the voters rejected the government’s
recommendation. As a result, the government resigned and was succeeded by a
centrist coalition headed by Lars Korvald of the Christian People’s Party. In
1973 Norway signed a free-trade agreement with the EC. Labor suffered
considerable losses in the 1973 elections, but Bratteli again was able to form a
minority government.
Bratteli resigned in 1976, but the party
remained in power until the elections of 1981. From February to October 1981,
the party was headed by Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway’s first female prime
minister. The nonsocialist parties gained a comfortable majority in September,
and Kåre Willoch of the Conservative Party formed a coalition government in
October. A broader coalition government, again headed by Willoch, was formed in
1983 and was reelected in 1985.
Petroleum and natural gas deposits had
been discovered in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea in the late 1960s, and
exploitation by a state company began in the 1970s. By the early 1980s oil and
gas from the North Sea fields accounted for some 30 percent of Norway’s annual
export earnings. Oil prices dropped abruptly in 1985 and 1986, and the prospect
of lower tax revenues and reduced export earnings led the Willoch government to
call for higher gasoline taxes in April 1986. Willoch lost a vote of no
confidence on the issue and was succeeded by a minority Labor government led by
Brundtland. She resigned after inconclusive elections in 1989, carrying Labor
into the opposition.
Jan P. Syse of the Conservative Party
succeeded Brundtland as prime minister, heading a minority center-right
coalition. The Syse government’s tenure, however, was short. Unable to agree on
a common position concerning future relations with the EC, it fell in 1990 and
was replaced by another minority Labor government led by Brundtland. Again,
Norway’s relationship with Europe was at the center of national politics. The
death of King Olaf V in January 1991 and the succession by his son, Harald V,
left Norwegians mourning their beloved king but still split on the issue of
joining the rest of Europe. The Center Party emerged as the principal opponent
of integration, arguing that Norwegian sovereignty would be compromised and its
welfare state policies eroded.
Brundtland’s Labor government returned to
power following the 1993 general election. In May 1994 the European Parliament
endorsed membership for Norway in the EU. However, aided by a rush of Norwegian
patriotism and nationalism following the Lillehammer Winter Olympic Games in
February 1994, Norwegians voted down membership in the EU in a November 1994
referendum.
Brundtland had stepped down as Labor Party
leader in 1992 and was replaced by Thorbjørn Jagland. In 1996 Brundtland
abruptly resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by Jagland. Jagland’s term
in office was marred by scandals among his cabinet members, and he was sharply
criticized by the opposition for rejecting a proposal to increase pension
payments for the elderly. Although the Labor Party won the largest share of
seats in the 1997 general election, Jagland stepped down as prime minister,
honoring his pledge to resign the post should his party receive fewer votes than
it did in 1993. An alliance led by Kjell Magne Bondevik, a leader of the
Christian People’s Party, attracted enough support to form a government.
Bondevik’s minority coalition government also included the Center and Liberal
parties.
Bondevik resigned as prime minister in
2000 after losing a no-confidence vote over the issue of whether to build
gas-fired electricity plants in Norway. Bondevik strongly opposed the plants,
which would have required Norway to amend its strict antipollution laws.
Bondevik was replaced by Labor Party leader Jens Stoltenberg. Stoltenberg,
although initially providing a spark when he took over as prime minister, was
unable to stem the electoral decline of the Labor Party, which suffered a
devastating defeat in the 2001 elections.
Bondevik returned as prime minister
leading a new center-right coalition of the Christian People’s Party, the
Conservative Party, and the Liberal Party. The coalition’s platform included
lower taxes, more privatization, and reforms in health care, education, and
welfare. In order to gain a parliamentary majority, Bondevik’s coalition won
backing from the far-right Progress Party, which, although the largest
nonsocialist party after the 2001 elections, remained formally outside the
coalition. Over the next four years Bondevik’s government implemented major
economic reforms, including tax cuts for businesses. Meanwhile, record high oil
prices on the world market boosted government revenues and led to unprecedented
economic prosperity in Norway.
Management of the country’s huge oil
wealth became the central debate in the 2005 election campaign. Labor Party
leader Stoltenberg accused Bondevik’s government of neglecting welfare services
and promised to spend more on health care and education. Bondevik advocated
additional tax cuts, which Stoltenberg opposed. In September voters
overwhelmingly supported Stoltenberg’s center-left bloc, which included the
Labor, Socialist Left, and Center parties. The bloc won 87 seats in the
169-member Storting (parliament), giving Norway its first majority government in
20 years. As leader of the Labor Party, which won 61 seats, Stoltenberg became
the new prime minister.
L | Foreign Affairs |
In foreign affairs Norway has sought to
expand its participation in international organizations such as the United
Nations (UN). Norway has also emphasized its commitment to international peace
talks, demonstrated in 1993 by its role in hosting negotiations between Israel
and Palestinians, which resulted in the establishment of the Palestinian
National Authority under the so-called Oslo Accords. Since then, Norwegian
diplomats have sought to help resolve international conflicts in many regions,
including Afghanistan, Colombia, Guatemala, East Timor, Sri Lanka, Somalia, and
Sudan. However, the character of Norway’s larger place within Europe—exemplified
by the debate over Norway’s possible membership in the European Union
(EU)—remains a divisive and unresolved issue.
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