| I | INTRODUCTION |
New
Brunswick, province in eastern Canada. It is the largest of Canada’s
three Maritime provinces, the others being Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.
It is also one of the four Atlantic provinces, which include the Maritimes plus
Newfoundland and Labrador. Fredericton is the provincial capital, and Saint John
is the largest city.
With its many swift-flowing streams and
rounded, forested hills, New Brunswick has the rough charm of the uplands of New
England. Timber cut from dense forests is transported to mills that make pulp
and paper, a leading manufacturing activity. Fishing and agriculture are also
important, and the province’s rich mineral deposits support a vigorous mining
industry. The ice-free port of Saint John, located at the mouth of the
province’s largest river, is an important shipping and commercial center. New
Brunswick’s rugged wilderness and coastal scenery draw many tourists, and the
largely unoccupied northern interior is famous for its excellent hunting and
fishing.
The original inhabitants of the area that is
now New Brunswick were Algonquian-speaking peoples of the Northeast culture area
(see Native Americans of North America). During and after the American
Revolution (1775-1783) many United Empire Loyalists—American colonists who
remained loyal to Britain during the war—fled to New Brunswick. They settled
there in such great numbers that the province was nicknamed the Loyalist
Province. The Loyalists lived among French farmers and fishers, who had
settled in the Maritimes in the early 17th century and called the region Acadia.
New Brunswick became a part of the British
province of Nova Scotia in 1763 at the conclusion of the French and Indian War.
Many French Acadians expelled by the British during the war were allowed to
return, and the French population and culture remained an important force in the
region. In 1784 New Brunswick became a separate British province. Nearly a
century later, in 1867, New Brunswick was one of the four original
provinces—along with Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Québec—that joined to form the
Dominion of Canada. Today, New Brunswick has the highest percentage of
Francophones in Canada outside of Québec, and it is Canada’s only officially
bilingual province.
| II | PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY |
New Brunswick is roughly the shape of a
rectangle and has an area of 72,908 sq km (28,150 sq mi), including 1,458 sq km
(563 sq mi) of inland waters. It ranks eighth in size among the Canadian
provinces. From north to south New Brunswick measures a maximum of 391 km (243
mi) and from east to west a maximum of 408 km (254 mi). Campobello, Deer, and
Grand Manan islands, which lie south of the mainland, are part of the province.
New Brunswick shares borders with the state
of Maine in the west, the province of Québec in the north, and the province of
Nova Scotia in the southeast. To the east are the Gulf of St. Lawrence and
Northumberland Strait, which separates New Brunswick from Prince Edward Island;
connecting the two provinces is the 12.9-km (8.02-mi) Confederation Bridge. To
the northeast lies Chaleur Bay (Baie des Chaleurs), and in the south is the Bay
of Fundy. The Bay of Fundy separates New Brunswick from Nova Scotia, but the two
provinces are linked by the Isthmus of Chignecto, a low-lying area covered by
marsh and swamp.
| A | Natural Regions |
New Brunswick is a part of the Appalachian
region, a geographic zone that runs almost the entire length of eastern North
America. The highest lands in New Brunswick are located on a plateau that
dominates the northwest of the province and provides headwaters for several
river systems. At the center of this region is the highest peak of the province,
Mount Carleton, which has an elevation of 820 m (2,690 ft). In central and
eastern New Brunswick are gently rolling hills. A maritime plain slopes to the
sea in the north and east. On the southern coast, a line of steep hills, called
the Caledonia Highlands and Kent Hills, drop to tidal marshes and the sea. In
the southwest a lowland plain extends inland from the coast.
Even in lowland areas the landscape of New
Brunswick varies considerably. Numerous rivers and streams have cut deeply into
the surface, creating rough terrain that is difficult to traverse. Everywhere
the land shows the effects of ancient glaciers, which covered New Brunswick
during the last ice age. A thick mantle of sandy materials deposited by glaciers
covers most of the province. In the lowlands, glacial deposits have created a
large number of lakes and swamps.
| B | Coastline |
The coastline of New Brunswick is broken by
many deep bays, inlets, and estuaries. All of New Brunswick is within 200 km
(124 mi) of the ocean. As a result, marine-based activities remain prominent in
the economic and social life of the province.
Chaleur Bay (Baie des Chaleurs) to the
north is one of the major inlets on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In the south is
the Bay of Fundy, which is noted for some of the world’s highest tides. Other
large bays are Passamaquoddy, Miramichi, and Nepisiguit bays. Chignecto Bay and
its arm, Cumberland Basin, is also a significant body of water.
The exceptionally high tides in the 150-km-
(90-mi)-long Bay of Fundy produce a series of spectacular natural phenomena. The
bay is narrow, especially in its headwaters area, where waters entering it from
the North Atlantic Ocean are bottled up. As a result, the variation between high
tides and low tides normally runs from 10 to 15 m (30 to 50 ft). However, spring
tides, or unusually high tides, raise the water level by as much as 18 m (60
ft). The Saint John and Petitcodiac rivers are especially affected by the bay.
On the Saint John River the result is the famous Reversing Falls, where the
force of the incoming tide reverses a series of low waterfalls where the river
meets the sea. The water then rushes uphill in a tidal wall against the normal
flow of the falls, appearing to defy gravity. On the Petitcodiac River near the
city of Moncton, high tides also produce a tidal bore (crested wave). There the
waters of the incoming tide rush in with such speed and force that they enter
the river as a solid wall as much as 2 m (6 ft) high. The vigorous tidal
activity in the Bay of Fundy helps keep its ports, most notably Saint John,
ice-free in winter.
| C | Rivers and Lakes |
Because of its generally abundant
precipitation, New Brunswick has an extensive network of rivers. The largest is
the Saint John River, 673 km (418 mi) long, which originates in New Brunswick’s
northwestern borderlands and flows south to the Bay of Fundy. The Saint Croix in
the west and the Petitcodiac in the southeast also empty into the Bay of Fundy.
Other major rivers include the Restigouche, the Nepisiguit, and the Miramichi,
which originate in the northern plateau and flow north and east to the Gulf of
St. Lawrence.
The rivers of New Brunswick are one of the
province’s most important geographic features and have shaped much of its
development. They provided the primary means of early transportation and opened
access to the thickly forested interior lands. Once used extensively for log
drives and steamboat routes, the rivers are increasingly important for fishing,
boating, recreation, and hydroelectric development. All of the province’s major
cities are located on rivers, as are most of the smaller settlements.
Grand Lake, the largest lake in New
Brunswick, is in the lowlands, east of Fredericton. Most other lakes are located
in the northern and southwestern parts of New Brunswick.
| D | Climate |
New Brunswick has a continental climate
that is moderated by maritime influences in the coastal areas. As a result,
coastal regions are slightly warmer in the winter and slightly cooler in the
summer than are interior regions. Annual temperature variations are large, with
the January mean usually at least 25 to 28°C (45 to 50°F) below the July mean in
all parts of New Brunswick. The greatest variations are found in the central
highlands, where the elevation accentuates the spread between the high and low.
Saint John, on the coast, has an average January temperature of -8°C (18°F) and
a July average of 17°C (63°F). Inland, Fredericton has an average January
temperature of -9°C (16°F) and a July average of 19°C (66°F).
The growing season, as measured by the
number of frost-free days, is longer in coastal regions than in the interior. It
measures approximately 150 days along the Bay of Fundy and 130 days along
Northumberland Strait to less than 60 days in the north central interior.
Air masses moving west from the Atlantic
Ocean bring enough water vapor to give all of the province ample precipitation.
Northern New Brunswick, farthest from the Atlantic air-mass influence, receives
about 1,000 mm (about 40 in) or less annually, much of it occurring in winter as
snow. At Saint John in the south the total precipitation of 1,420 mm (56 in) is
more or less evenly divided between the cool and warm seasons of the year.
| E | Soils |
The soils in most of New Brunswick are
known as podzols, which form in moist climates and are typically gray or grayish
brown. These soils, characteristic of northern areas once covered by glaciers,
tend to be sandy and acidic. Many kinds of trees thrive in these soils, but they
must be heavily fertilized for most agricultural purposes. More fertile reddish
soils are found in lowland regions, along river valleys, and in the diked lands
on the Bay of Fundy.
| F | Plant Life |
New Brunswick is Canada’s most heavily
forested province, with woodlands covering 87 percent of the land area. Northern
New Brunswick is the southern limit of Canada’s great coniferous evergreen
forest, or taiga, in which spruce, fir, and tamarack (American larch) are the
principal trees. Much of new Brunswick contains mixed forests, which contain a
mix of deciduous and taiga forest. Immediately adjacent to Chaleur Bay and along
the Restigouche River in the north is a section of mixed forest that contains
maple and birch as well as pine and spruce.
The southern and eastern portions of the
province are dominated by Acadian mixed forest, a diverse ecosystem in which red
spruce is an important variety. The Acadian mixed forest includes 32 different
tree species, such as sugar maple, birch, beech, red maple, ash, and elm mixed
with white spruce, white pine, fir, and hemlock. This forest type is best
developed in the Saint John River Valley. On the eastern coast the principal
trees are black spruce, cedar, and tamarack. Few parts of the region are barren.
One distinctive feature of local plant
life is the fiddlehead, a small edible fern that grows along rivers in
springtime. Although not unique to New Brunswick, the fiddlehead is considered a
provincial delicacy.
| G | Animal Life |
New Brunswick’s thick forests and sparse
settlement provide for an unusually rich animal population. Moose, black bear,
and white-tailed deer abound. Smaller forest animals include beaver, marten,
mink, fox, otter, rabbits, skunks, squirrels, and birds such as the evening
grosbeak. The more open areas support many species of birds, including games
birds such as partridge, pheasant, grouse, and woodcock. The Canada goose and
black duck, among a dozen duck species, are also plentiful. Migrant waterfowl
and shorebirds appear seasonally in large numbers along New Brunswick’s
extensive coastline. They include species of sandpiper, plover, and gull.
Most of the streams draining into the sea
are spawning grounds for the Atlantic salmon, an important sport fish. The
Miramichi is regarded as one of the premier Atlantic salmon rivers in North
America. Other fish include speckled trout, shad, pike, and bass. Oysters,
lobsters, and crab are found in shallow coastal waters, as are many other
species of fish and shellfish. Protected wildlife species of New Brunswick
include the lynx, cougar (puma), peregrine falcon, and bald eagle.
| H | Environmental Issues |
New Brunswick faces several significant
environmental issues, including air pollution and water pollution. Coal- and
oil-fired power plants and industries such as pulp and paper mills emit a
variety of airborne contaminants, including sulfur dioxide—a chief component of
acid rain. Scientists believe that the soil and bedrock in the southwest and
northeast regions of New Brunswick are especially susceptible to the effects of
acid rain. To limit harmful airborne emissions, the provincial department of the
environment requires all power plants and other industries to install modern air
pollution control equipment. Water pollution in the province is caused mainly by
discharges from pulp and paper mills and by municipal sewage. Strict regulations
enforced by the federal and provincial governments require municipalities and
mills to treat contaminated water.
Conservation efforts in the province are
centered on protecting the vast forests upon which so many people depend for a
livelihood. For many decades, the forests were treated mainly as commodity, with
an emphasis on maximizing harvests. Over the years a broader approach to forest
conservation developed in which a variety of values, including recreation and
wildlife preservation, were taken into account. Today, New Brunswick actively
reforests cleared lands and is widely considered a leader in forest-management
practices in Canada. However, conservationists remain concerned that industrial
forestry has endangered the balance of the forest ecosystem.
New Brunswick closely regulates fishing
and hunting in the province. The province has also developed polices for the
protection of coastal wetlands, beaches, and dunes, and for the designation of
protected wildlife species. In addition, all new economic development projects
in the province are subject to environmental impact assessments.
| III | ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES |
The forests of New Brunswick have been the
province’s most important natural resource for centuries and they remain at the
center of the provincial economy. Other primary resource industries, especially
farming and fishing, have also been significant. Much of the province’s resource
output is exported, and the existence of ice-free ports on the Atlantic Ocean
has long facilitated this export trade.
Prior to the 20th century, the trade in
timber dominated the economy. Manufacturing industries rapidly expanded during
the early 20th century, and by the 1930s pulp and paper production had surpassed
timber in economic importance. The growth of manufacturing, in turn, spurred the
development of hydroelectricity to power mills and factories. The late 20th
century witnessed further diversification of forest industries, the emergence of
mining as a major economic activity, and the modernization of fishing and
farming practices. Service industries, including tourism, also grew in
importance, and by the late 20th century services provided the leading sources
of income and employment in New Brunswick.
In 2001 the gross domestic product (GDP)
of New Brunswick was 25 billion Canadian dollars (in 2006 the U.S. dollar was on
average equivalent to 1.10 Canadian dollars). Of this, the service sector
contributed nearly two-thirds of the GDP, and industry contributed slightly more
than one-third. Forestry, fishing, and farming contributed just over 3 percent.
New Brunswick’s labor force in 2002 included 393,600 people, and the province
recorded an unemployment rate of 8.9 percent.
| A | Agriculture |
Farming in New Brunswick is fragmented
because areas of good soils are scarce and scattered. During the 20th century,
the number of farms in the province declined more than tenfold as manufacturing
developed and many rural people abandoned near-subsistence farming. In 2006 New
Brunswick’s farms numbered just 2,800. Most farms are small, averaging 142
hectares (351 acres). About 395,200 hectares (about 976,600 acres) of land is in
farms.
The upper Saint John Valley in the west,
the only significant region of the province naturally suited to agriculture, is
one of the more important farming regions of maritime Canada. The valley is a
major potato-producing area, and Grand Falls is the principal center. Potatoes
are the leading cash crop of New Brunswick, and there are some 400 potato farms
in the province. Farther south along the valley, apples are a dominant
crop.
A second important region of agricultural
activity includes the valleys that run parallel to the southern shore of the
province to the lands around Moncton. These lands are protected by dikes,
originally built in the 17th and 18th centuries by French Acadian farmers, to
safeguard fields from the Bay of Fundy’s dramatically shifting waters. This
region represents the largest expanse of good agricultural land in the province,
and it is a leading dairy area of the Maritimes. Field crops, mainly oats and
hay cut from cultivated grasses, are grown to support the dairy herds. Some
farming is also carried on in the eastern coastal region, but it is generally a
part-time occupation for fishers.
Most of New Brunswick’s agricultural
produce is consumed in the province, except potatoes and some fruits, such as
blueberries and strawberries, which are mainly shipped to other Canadian
provinces and the United States.
| B | Forestry |
Coastal waters teeming with fish first
brought Europeans to the Maritimes, but it was the wealth of the forest that
attracted permanent settlement to New Brunswick. The rise of the timber trade
after 1783 led to the settlement of the upper Saint John Valley and to the
opening of the eastern coastal areas around the mouths of rivers, where settlers
found seemingly endless forests. During the late 1700s and early 1800s, the
United Kingdom got much of its timber, especially white pine for ship masts,
from eastern Canada. After 1809 Britain sought more general timber supplies.
Great fleets of timber ships stopped to pick up cargo at Saint John. By 1870,
when wood shipbuilding was in decline and New Brunswick faced rising competition
from other timber exporters, the province’s forests had been heavily cut.
Despite the early exploitation of timber
in the province, forest cover gradually returned to large tracts of cleared
land. Today, 87 percent of New Brunswick is forested. Private ownership accounts
for 30 percent of this timberland, while public land accounts for 50 percent.
The remainder of the timberland is controlled by industrial freehold. The annual
allowable cut is more than 11 million cubic meters (388 million cubic feet).
Eastern New Brunswick, which contains
both coniferous and mixed forests, is an important base of the pulp and paper
industry. Chatham and Newcastle are sawmill centers; pulp, plywood, and pressed
wood are manufactured in the area. The central and northern parts of New
Brunswick have a greater wealth of timber and a more developed lumber industry.
Other centers are Bathurst for paper, Dalhousie for newsprint, Saint John for
paper products, and Edmundston for pulp manufacturing. Spruce is the principal
species cut for pulping.
| C | Fishing |
Coastal communities in all parts of New
Brunswick have depended on fishing for generations, and the industry continues
to be a significant force in New Brunswick’s economy. The main fishing areas
include the Bay of Fundy, Northumberland Strait, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Fishers are found in almost every inhabited harbor. The 2005 catch was valued at
205 million Canadian dollars.
The fishing industry of southern New
Brunswick is based on the fisheries of the Bay of Fundy. The great tides of the
bay bring in large amounts of plankton, on which many marine species feed. The
main species caught in New Brunswick is lobster, which alone counts for one-half
of the total value, followed by snow crab and herring. Other important marine
species include scallops, shrimp, and clams. Blacks Harbour, with one of the
world’s largest sardine canneries, is the leading center of the industry.
Aquaculture (fish farming) was established on the province’s southern shores in
1979, and it now yields substantial harvests, mainly of Atlantic salmon. Other
species raised include trout, mussels, and oysters.
The eastern coast fishers catch herring,
among other species. Cod, a once-plentiful and economically important fish, has
nearly disappeared because of overfishing. New Brunswick fishers also share some
of the fine lobster grounds of Northumberland Strait.
| D | Mining |
Mining became important to the economy of
New Brunswick with the discovery of metal ores in the northern part of the
province in the 1950s. Since that time, much exploration and development has
occurred, and in 2004 the industry was valued at 760 million Canadian dollars.
The output of zinc accounted for more than half the value of total mineral
production. This was followed by silver, lead, and copper. The province also
produces significant quantities of antimony and bismuth. The Brunswick Number 12
mine near Bathurst is one of the largest base-metal deposits in the world. In
addition, a variety of nonmetallic minerals are mined in New Brunswick,
including limestone and gypsum. Other important nonmetallic minerals include
potash, salt, stone, sand and gravel, clay, and lime.
Coal production, a long-established
industry in the Grand Lake area, remains steady, but its future is uncertain as
the province pursues cleaner forms of energy. New Brunswick in 2002 produced
194,000 metric tons of coal. Most of the coal produced is used to fuel New
Brunswick’s power-generating plants. Peat, a precursor to coal, is extracted
from more than two dozen bogs in the province.
| E | Manufacturing |
Most manufacturing in New Brunswick is
based on the processing of local primary resources. The principal manufactured
products include pulp and paper products, food products (especially processed
fish and seafood), and beverages. Other important manufactured goods include
fabricated metals, nonmetallic mineral products, printing and publishing, and
chemicals and plastics.
Manufacturing is concentrated in the
Saint John and Moncton areas. Saint John, including Lancaster and East Saint
John, is the largest industrial center in the province. Its industries include
wood pulp and paper manufacturing; food processing; brewing; oil refining; and
the manufacture of clothing, household goods, and ships for the Canadian navy.
Moncton’s industries manufacture meat products, fabricated metals, machinery,
and fertilizer. Fredericton, an administrative and educational center, has
mostly light industries, printing, and high-technology firms. Bathurst,
Edmundston, and Dalhousie have major pulp and paper mills.
| F | Electric Power |
Electric power, the primary source of
energy in New Brunswick, is generated from a variety of sources. A nuclear power
plant that opened in 1982 at Point Lepreau, near Saint John, accounts for about
one-third of New Brunswick’s electricity production. Half of the electricity
generated at Point Lepreau—the only nuclear power station in the Atlantic
provinces—is exported to the United States. Other important sources of
electricity include coal- and petroleum-fired plants and hydroelectric
facilities. Major hydroelectric sites are on the Saint John River at Grand
Falls, Beechwood, and Mactaquac. Another hydroelectric installation is near the
point where the Tobique River enters the Saint John River.
Natural gas is a small but potentially
important source of energy for the province. In 1999 construction began on a
system to transport offshore natural gas from Nova Scotia’s Sable Island to the
Maritime provinces and the northeastern United States. Most of the gas is
currently shipped by pipeline across New Brunswick to markets in New England,
but gas shipments to New Brunswick were expected to increase with the
development of a natural gas distribution infrastructure.
| G | Transportation |
Rivers, lakes, and coastal waters were
New Brunswick’s early highways. The need to build bridges over numerous streams
and unstable soils in many areas delayed road and railway construction.
Railroads eventually surpassed waterways in moving freight, and by the late 19th
century a substantial road network had evolved.
Today, New Brunswick has about 1,000 km
(about 620 mi) of mainline railroad track, operated by the Canadian Pacific and
the Canadian National railway systems. Moncton, the headquarters of the Atlantic
region of the Canadian National Railways, and Saint John are important rail
transportation centers. Lines connect New Brunswick with the provinces of Nova
Scotia and Québec and with the United States.
New Brunswick has an extensive road
system that includes 7,700 km (4,780 mi) of highways, roads, and streets, almost
all of which are paved and well maintained. Most roads, including the
Trans-Canada Highway, tend to follow the Saint John River Valley, although good
roads link all the major urban areas. The 1997 opening of the Confederation
Bridge linking New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island was an important
development. The impressive 12.9-km (8.02-mi) structure replaced regular ferry
service at the same site.
Major airports with regular service are
located at Saint John, Moncton, and Fredericton. Regional airports include those
at St. Léonard, Bathurst, Charlo, and Miramichi. There are five seaports in New
Brunswick, of which Saint John is the largest. The other ports are Dalhousie,
Belledune, Bayside, and Miramichi.
| H | Services |
Service industries comprise the largest
sector of New Brunswick’s economy. They encompass a vast array of activities
including business and personal services; wholesale and retail trade; the
operation of hotels, restaurants, and recreational facilities; banking,
insurance, and real estate; government and public utilities; education and
health care; data processing; and automotive repair.
New Brunswick’s trade centers on the
export of raw materials and manufactured goods to foreign countries and to other
provinces and the import of manufactured goods and crude oil. The province’s
leading exports are paper and wood pulp, electricity, processed food, and
metals. More than 80 percent of New Brunswick’s exports go to the United States.
The value of the province’s yearly imports greatly exceeds the value of its
yearly exports.
Tourism is increasingly important to New
Brunswick’s economy. By 1999 the number of visitors to the province exceeded 1.5
million annually. Most visitors are from Québec, the other Maritime provinces,
and Maine. New Brunswick has also succeeded in attracting substantial numbers of
visitors from France, Ontario, and major cities of the United States. Two major
national parks, 22 provincial parks, and numerous historical settlements and
museums are among the most popular summer attractions. Supplementing the summer
tourism season are various tours and festivals in the fall and outdoor
recreational activities such as skiing and snowmobiling in winter.
| IV | THE PEOPLE OF NEW BRUNSWICK |
| A | Population Patterns |
According to the 2001 national census, New
Brunswick had a population of 729,498, an increase of less than one percent over
the 1991 figure of 723,900. The population density is 11 persons per sq km (27
per sq mi). In 2001 the population of New Brunswick was 50 percent urban, mostly
concentrated in small cities, towns, and villages. About one-third were in
cities with populations that exceeded 25,000.
Prior to European settlement, New
Brunswick was inhabited by three Algonquian tribes of the Abenaki confederation,
the Maliseet, Mi’kmaq, and Passamaquoddy. French settlers arrived in the 17th
and 18th centuries and founded villages along the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the
lower Saint John Valley. During the American Revolution (1775-1783), people from
New England who supported the British settled in the Saint John Valley and other
areas. The 19th century brought many British and Irish immigrants. A small but
significant number of Europeans immigrated to New Brunswick in the decades after
World War II (1939-1945).
Today, the great majority of residents of
New Brunswick were born in the province. According to the 2001 census the
largest single group of people identify themselves as Canadian. Other major
groups include people claiming French, English, Irish, and Scottish ancestry, in
that order. In addition, significant numbers of people identified their ethnic
origins as German, Acadian, aboriginal, and Dutch.
There are two official languages in New
Brunswick: English and French. English only is spoken by 69 percent of New
Brunswick’s inhabitants, while 29 percent of the people speak only French, and
34 percent are bilingual. Among the regions of Canada, New Brunswick is second
only to Québec in its percentage of bilingual speakers.
| B | Principal Cities |
New Brunswick does not have a single
dominant urban center but features instead three major cities, each with its own
distinct history and character. Saint John, with a 2006 population of 68,043 and
a metropolitan-area population of 125,900 (2006 estimate), is the largest city
in the province, as well as its chief commercial and manufacturing center and
port. Moncton, the second largest city, dominates the southeast of the province,
with 64,128 people in 2006. A major railway center, Moncton developed as a key
distribution point for the Maritimes; in recent years it has succeeded in
attracting high-technology and service industries. Fredericton, with 50,535
inhabitants, is the provincial capital and third largest city. Since the end of
World War II, Fredericton has benefited from the expansion of government
services and higher education, which are important sources of local
employment.
Other large cities are Bathurst, a
seaport and industrial center, with 12,714 inhabitants; Edmundston, on the Saint
John River, with 16,643 inhabitants; and Campbellton, on the Restigouche River,
with 7,384 inhabitants. Both Edmundston and Campbellton are pulp-milling and
lumbering centers.
| C | Religion |
Slightly more than half the people of New
Brunswick are Roman Catholic. Protestant denominations, including the United
Church of Canada and the Baptist and Anglican churches, also have significant
memberships in the province.
| D | Social Issues |
New Brunswick is among Canada’s least
prosperous provinces, with family incomes remaining consistently below the
national average. Only Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia record lower
family incomes. Economic hardship is related to the seasonal nature of
employment in a resource-dependent economy and the prominence of part-time
employment in many sectors, such as tourism. This contributes to New Brunswick’s
relatively high unemployment rate.
During the late 20th century, the
province’s economic disparities were addressed through economic development
programs, most of which had limited success, and by the provision of expanded
social services to vulnerable populations. Social justice groups in the province
have directed particular attention to the incidence of poverty among children
and the elderly, and to the high rates of unemployment and underemployment among
young people, women, and aboriginal peoples.
| V | EDUCATION AND CULTURAL LIFE |
The provincial department of education
administers elementary and secondary education. The cost of public education is
one of the largest single items in the provincial budget, accounting for about
20 percent of total expenditures. School attendance is compulsory from the age
of 5 until the age of 18 or the completion of high school. The school system is
organized into 12 Anglophone (English-speaking) and 6 Francophone
(French-speaking) districts. An elected council composed of parents or their
representatives advises each district.
New Brunswick has four universities, all of
which are financially supported by the province and administered, along with the
universities of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, by a regional commission
of the Maritime provinces. The University of New Brunswick at Fredericton and
Saint John is the oldest and largest in the province. Founded in 1785, the
university has well-established programs in forestry, engineering, the sciences,
education, and other fields. The French-language University of Moncton has
campuses at Moncton, Edmundston, and Shippagan. It has played a major role in
improving educational opportunities for the Francophone population and promoting
the visibility of Acadian culture. There are also two smaller universities:
Saint Thomas University, in Fredericton, which is affiliated with the Roman
Catholic Church but is associated with the University of New Brunswick; and
Mount Allison University, in Sackville, which is affiliated with the United
Church of Canada.
A community college system, sponsored by the
province’s continuing education program, offers specialized training in a wide
variety of subjects, including many in support of the province’s information and
communications industries.
| A | Libraries |
Major research libraries are located at the
universities in Fredericton, Moncton, and Sackville. The Irving Library of the
University of New Brunswick has among its collection many rare volumes and
valuable manuscripts. The province’s legislative library is located at
Fredericton. There are five regional public library systems in the province. The
New Brunswick library service at Fredericton coordinates and supplements the
regional libraries.
| B | Museums |
The New Brunswick Museum at Saint John
includes collections dedicated to heritage, history, fine arts, humanities, and
natural science. Founded in 1842 as a private museum, it is the oldest
continuing museum in Canada. It became the provincial museum in 1930. The
Miramichi Natural History Museum in Chatham is devoted to wildlife and local
history. At the Village Historique Acadien, in Caraquet, visitors can view the
culture and life of early Acadian settlers. Fredericton is home to the
Beaverbrook Art Gallery, which was donated by Lord William Beaverbrook, a noted
British statesman and newspaper publisher. One of Canada’s major galleries, the
museum includes many important works by British and Canadian painters.
| C | Arts |
New Brunswick’s distinctive culture has
often revealed a tension between outside influences and local sources. In
colonial times, cultural activity was usually judged against forms of expression
popular in Europe, and New Brunswick’s artists and intellectuals struggled for
recognition. In the late 19th century, following confederation, New Brunswick
contributed a small school of nationalist poets dedicated to the promotion of a
Canadian identity rooted in a romantic appreciation of nature. Sometimes known
as the Fredericton poets, they included Bliss Carmen, Charles G. D. Roberts, and
Joseph Sherman. In his lifetime, Carmen was widely considered Canada’s greatest
poet.
During the 20th century the poetic
tradition continued under intellectuals such as Alfred G. Bailey, who in 1945
founded the literary magazine The Fiddlehead. The magazine continues to
publish works by poets from all over the English-speaking world. New Brunswick’s
literary tradition has also been enriched by writers such as Elizabeth Brewster
and Alden Nowlan, who wrote poetry and fiction exploring the difficulties of
life in the province. Other notable contemporary English-language writers in
this vein include Herb Curtis and David Adams Richards.
The evolution of French-language
literature has involved a similar movement towards greater independence from
outside influences. In 1847 the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
published a poem, Evangeline, which in its French translation captured
the imagination of Acadian society. With its portrayal of a woman separated from
her true love, the poem provided a rallying point for the dispersed Acadian
community, and it was widely credited for sparking a renaissance of Acadian
culture. In the 20th century Acadian culture was maintained by enthusiastic
collectors of folklore and by historians such as Anselme Chiasson. More
recently, the voice of Acadian New Brunswick has been heard in the novels and
short stories of Antonine Maillet. Other notable contemporary Francophone
writers include Jacques Savoie, France Daigle, and Herménégilde Chiasson, the
last of whom is also an artist, playwright, and filmmaker.
In the visual arts, Saint John emerged as
a center of painting in the 1930s and 1940s, featuring such internationally
regarded artists as Miller Brittain, Jack Humphrey, and Fred Ross. New
Brunswick’s contemporary art scene includes the painters Mary Pratt and Molly
Bobak, and the sculptor and muralist Claude Roussel.
For both language groups, music has been
an important part of local culture. Performers from New Brunswick who have
achieved wide recognition include fiddler Don Messer; country singer-songwriter
Tom Connors; country-folk musician Roch Voisine; and Acadian folksinger Edith
Butler. The Miramichi Folk Song Festival helps keep traditional music alive in
the province. Events such as the International Festival of Baroque Music held at
Lamèque every July and the Harvest Jazz and Blues Festival held in Fredericton
every September have contributed to the diversity of musical culture.
Several theatrical productions are staged
annually at the Playhouse in Fredericton, the headquarters of Theatre New
Brunswick. This company is the oldest professional touring theater in Canada and
performs throughout the province. There are also theater groups in Saint John
and Moncton.
| D | Communications |
The province has 5 daily newspapers,
including the daily French-language paper L’Acadie Nouvelle, published at
Caraquet and Moncton, and the New Brunswick Telegraph Journal, published
in Saint John. New Brunswick has 11 AM and 20 FM radio stations and 3 television
broadcasters. Most broadcast in English, but several stations offer
French-language programs.
| VI | RECREATION AND PLACES TO VISIT |
New Brunswick offers numerous recreational
opportunities related to its natural environment and cultural traditions. Many
visitors are attracted to the province’s forests, rivers, beaches, and many
parks. All seasons have something to offer vacationers. The fishing season opens
in spring, and the province’s salmon streams—especially the Miramichi—are
particularly well known. In summer, resorts flourish along the beaches of the
Bay of Fundy and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while hikers and campers explore the
northern woods. Autumn brings hunters to the province’s acres of game country,
where deer is the principal quarry. In winter ski enthusiasts flock to northern
resorts such as Sugarloaf, located in Campbellton.
New Brunswick has two national parks. Fundy
National Park, opened in 1948, is located between Saint John and Moncton on the
Bay of Fundy. It offers camping facilities and cottages for visitors who come to
enjoy its forests, lakes, streams, and ocean beaches. Kouchibouguac National
Park on Northumberland Strait, established in 1969, offers campsites, trails,
windswept dunes and beaches, and waters rich with fish.
New Brunswick is home to many historic sites
and museums. Fort Beauséjour, near Sackville, includes the site of a fort built
by the French in the 18th century and later used by the Acadians when they were
under British attack. The Village Historique Acadien (Acadian Historic Village),
at Caraquet, re-creates the Acadian way of life in northeast New Brunswick.
Kings Landing Historical Settlement, near Fredericton, focuses on pioneer life
in the Saint John River Valley. Also in the valley, at Hartland, is the world’s
longest covered bridge, which was built in 1901 and spans 391 m (1,282 ft) over
the Saint John River. Popular museums include the New Brunswick Museum in Saint
John; the forestry and woods museums at Kedgwick in the north and at Boiestown
in central New Brunswick; and marine museums at Saint Andrews in the south and
Shippagan in the northeast. There are also many local museums throughout the
province.
On Campobello Island, in the Bay of Fundy,
is the summer home of U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945). It is
maintained as Roosevelt Campobello International Park by the Canadian and U.S.
governments and includes facilities for small conferences. Other popular
attractions include the Trappist monastery at Rogersville; Magnetic Hill near
Moncton, where vehicles appear to roll uphill because of an optical illusion;
and the rocks at Hopewell Cape, fantastic shapes of sandstone carved by the
tides of the Bay of Fundy.
| VII | GOVERNMENT |
| A | Introduction |
As in the other Canadian provinces, New
Brunswick follows a system of government based on the British parliamentary
tradition, as it has evolved within the larger Canadian federal union. New
Brunswick is Canada’s only officially bilingual province, and under the Official
Languages Act (passed in 1969 and amended in 2002), English and French have
equal status in all forums of provincial government. All citizens who have
reached the age of 18, and who have been resident in New Brunswick for at least
six months, may vote in provincial elections.
| B | National Representation |
New Brunswick is represented in the
Canadian Parliament by ten popularly elected members of the House of Commons.
New Brunswick is also represented by nine senators, appointed by the federal
government, in the Senate.
| C | Executive |
The nominal head of government in New
Brunswick is the lieutenant governor, who represents the monarchy and is
appointed by the federal government. The lieutenant governor is responsible for
convening and dissolving the legislature and giving royal assent to legislation.
Real political power in the province rests with the premier, the leader of the
majority party or coalition in the legislature, and a cabinet chosen by the
premier. Each member of the cabinet heads a provincial department, apart from
the cabinet member who heads the New Brunswick Electric Power Commission, a
crown corporation.
| D | Legislature |
The New Brunswick legislative assembly is
composed of 55 members, each popularly elected to represent a single
constituency or district. A general election must be held every five years. The
election may be called earlier by the lieutenant governor, on the advice of the
premier, or in the event that the government loses a vote of confidence in the
legislative assembly.
| E | Judiciary |
New Brunswick has two higher courts,
appointed by the federal government. The highest court is the Court of Appeal.
The court consists of a chief justice and five other justices and hears appeals
from lower courts. The Court of Queen’s Bench has two divisions. The Trial
Division is responsible for trying major civil and criminal cases. The Family
Division is responsible for child protection and for spousal and parental rights
and obligations.
In addition to the higher courts, the
provincial courts, appointed by the provincial government, hear minor cases;
more serious cases must be heard by the Court of Queen’s Bench. Small claims
courts hear cases that concern disputes over small sums of money.
| F | Political Parties |
The Conservative Party and the Liberal
Party have dominated the politics of New Brunswick since the late 19th century.
This two-party system has proven fairly balanced, and each party has won a more
or less equal number of elections. The Conservative Party is now known at the
provincial level as the Progressive Conservative Party (at the federal level it
is called the Conservative Party). Third parties, such as the New Democratic
Party, have rarely been successful in the province.
| G | Services |
Health and medical services are provided
free of charge to residents, and the elderly are eligible for financial
assistance to cover the cost of prescription drugs. Health services are provided
by seven regional districts, which include major urban hospitals as well as
smaller clinics.
| VIII | HISTORY |
| A | Indigenous Peoples |
The original inhabitants of New
Brunswick were Algonquian-speaking aboriginal peoples—the Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, and
Passamaquoddy. The Mi’kmaq lived in northeastern New Brunswick, the Maliseet in
the Saint John River Valley, and the Passamaquoddy in the southwestern coastal
area. These aboriginal groups had distinct customs but shared much in common.
They were primarily hunters and fishers who depended for their food on the
wildlife of the forests and the fish and shellfish of the rivers and coastal
areas. They made their tools from stone and bone, their clothing from animal
skins and fur, and their wigwams using birch poles and bark. They also built
light and maneuverable birchbark canoes for travel by water and wooden toboggans
for travel in winter over snow.
The arrival of the French in the early
16th century was greeted by the Mi’kmaq as an opportunity to trade for European
goods, such as iron tools, woolen clothing, and copper kettles, that
supplemented their way of life without transforming it. Until the early 18th
century, the aboriginal population continued to dominate the area, and European
trade and settlement depended on collaboration with native peoples. However,
aboriginal society was undermined by increased dependence on European goods and
exposure to unfamiliar diseases. This led to a catastrophic decline in the
native population and, with increasing European settlement in the 18th century,
the loss of control over their territory.
| B | Exploration and Early Settlement |
It is likely that explorers John Cabot
in 1497 and Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 sailed along New Brunswick’s coast.
In 1534 French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed into Chaleur Bay. Seventy years
later, Pierre du Gua, sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain explored and named
the Saint John River before sailing to Dochet Island (now Saint Croix Island,
Maine), at the mouth of the Saint Croix River, where they spent the winter of
1604 and 1605. This is generally regarded as the beginning of European
settlement in New Brunswick. The following spring the expedition was relocated
to Port Royal, which is now Annapolis Royal in Nova Scotia.
Over the next century a distinctive new
society emerged in the maritime region known as Acadia to the French, an area
that included the present-day provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and
Prince Edward Island. The Acadians, as they became known, were people of French
ancestry who developed a successful mixed economy based on farming, fishing, and
trade. They enjoyed rapid population growth and good relations with aboriginal
peoples. However, imperialist rivalries between France and Britain, complicated
by the expansionist ambitions of New Englanders, caused repeated conflicts over
control of Acadia after 1680.
Control over the Bay of Fundy
alternated between France and Britain as several European treaties negated
British military victories over French-held territories in North America. Most
of Nova Scotia fell permanently to the British in 1710, and its status was
confirmed by the Peace of Utrecht three years later. Possession of New
Brunswick, however, was not decided. In the meantime, disputes over the loyalty
of Acadian settlers to the British crown were resolved by the acceptance of an
oath that promised Acadian neutrality in military conflicts.
In 1750, in an effort to strengthen its
control of the Canadian mainland, France built two forts on the Isthmus of
Chignecto: Beauséjour, near Aulac, and Gaspereau, near Port Elgin. As the
French-British imperial rivalry again heated up, British authorities in Nova
Scotia demanded new loyalty oaths from the Acadians. At that time the Acadians
numbered more than 15,000 people in the region, and they were viewed as a
potential source of assistance to French territorial ambitions. In 1755, when
the Acadian residents refused to swear new oaths of loyalty, Nova Scotia
governor Charles Lawrence ordered the removal of the entire Acadian population
from the colony and the confiscation of their lands and property. In the same
year British forces captured the two French forts, thus ensuring British control
of New Brunswick. The deportation of thousands of Acadians to British ports
along the Atlantic seaboard from New England to Georgia was a major military
exercise and has remained one of the most controversial episodes in the history
of the region.
| C | British Colony |
Under the terms of the Royal
Proclamation in 1763, issued by Britain after France’s defeat in the French and
Indian War, New Brunswick was to be administered from Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Beginning in 1764 British authorities permitted exiled Acadians to return. Over
the next half-century many Acadians reestablished themselves in the region,
although most moved to rural areas on New Brunswick’s frontiers because their
former lands had largely been resettled. At the same time, a new wave of
immigration from New England served to strengthen the English-speaking presence
in New Brunswick, including the arrival of about 1,000 people who established
Maugerville as their chief settlement. Even before the war ended, three
enterprising New Englanders, James Simonds, William Hazen, and James White,
founded a trading post at the mouth of the Saint John River in anticipation of
increased population and trade. By 1775 an influx of settlers from Yorkshire,
England, had brought the population to about 4,500. The settlers lived by
farming, trading furs, fishing, and lumbering.
| D | American Revolution |
Contrary to the expectations of the
British and American governments, most New Brunswickers remained neutral during
the American Revolution. The fighting in the colony was sporadic. Although a
small number supported a Maine force in gaining control of the Bay of Fundy,
British sea power had again captured control of the bay by 1776. In November of
the same year a transplanted American settler, Jonathan Eddy, led an
unsuccessful assault against Fort Cumberland (formerly Fort Beauséjour).
Although events in New Brunswick did not
determine the outcome of the war, the American Revolution had a profound effect
on the colony. Even as the war raged, Britain recognized New Brunswick as an
important source of lumber for its navy, and Saint John became a shipbuilding
center. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the revolution in 1783, established the
Saint Croix River as a common border with the district of Maine, then a part of
Massachusetts. However, the most important effect of the revolution on New
Brunswick was the tremendous migration of United Empire Loyalists to the Saint
John Valley. Within a year after the war more than 14,000 Loyalists, deprived of
their American property, sought refuge. Largely through Sir Guy Carleton, the
British commander in New York, thousands were directed to Britain’s nearby
colony on the Bay of Fundy, where they established towns as far north as
Woodstock. Another group settled on the site of Saint Andrews.
| E | Separation |
The Loyalists, many of whom had been
leaders in the American colonies, quickly developed a distrust of Halifax, the
remote seat of the British colony of Nova Scotia. They successfully agitated for
a separate government. In 1784 the area west and north of the Nova Scotian
peninsula was named New Brunswick. Thomas Carleton, brother of Sir Guy, became
the first governor. By 1785, Carleton, over the objections of the Saint John
merchants and traders, succeeded in locating the capital at Fredericton. He also
established the Provincial Academy of Arts and Sciences (now the University of
New Brunswick).
The Loyalists, meanwhile, had been given
land by the British government, and the future appeared promising. Britain’s
involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars in the 1790s, however, ended
economic aid to the colony and disrupted its West Indian trade.
As a result, Saint John, which had been
incorporated as the first Canadian city in 1785, declined as an important port
and the infant interior towns failed to expand. By 1800 the population of New
Brunswick had reached only about 20,000.
| F | Expansion |
In 1805, at the Battle of Trafalgar, the
British navy secured control of the seas and transatlantic trade resumed. As the
war raged in Europe, great demands were made on New Brunswick for ships, lumber,
and fishing and agricultural products. The colony was well suited for its new
role. It had many navigable rivers, great pine and spruce forests, and thousands
of citizens who willingly moved into all aspects of the profitable lumber
industry. A stimulant of only slightly less importance was the U.S. Embargo Act
of 1807, which prevented U.S. ships from sailing into foreign ports.
Accordingly, Saint Andrews and Saint John became free ports from which a
lucrative foreign trade was conducted.
The demands of the War of 1812 between
Britain and the United States further stimulated the colony’s economy. Trade
with New England expanded, and immigration, particularly from the British Isles,
became notable. The colony played a minor role in the war. A Fredericton
regiment saw action on the Niagara frontier, and the Maine coast as far south as
the Penobscot River was temporarily annexed. By 1825 the population was
approximately 75,000. Most New Brunswickers were engaged in the lumber industry,
while others farmed the more fertile lands. Fishing, by comparison, was
neglected.
| G | Aroostook War |
The New Brunswick-Maine border north of
the Saint Croix River was left unresolved by the Treaty of Paris. After Maine
gained statehood in 1820, Maine citizens found that the Aroostook Valley was
claimed by New Brunswick. In 1838 Maine and New Brunswick assembled their
militias in preparation for war. Peaceful negotiations, however, settled the
dispute and the so-called war remained bloodless. In 1842 the Webster-Ashburton
Treaty set the present border. The Aroostook Valley was given to the United
States, and navigational rights on the Saint John River were granted to both New
Brunswick and Maine.
| H | Reform |
For 50 years New Brunswick was governed
by a democratically elected assembly and an appointed executive not responsible
to it. As in other British colonies, there was much friction. In the 1830s the
timber merchants gained a majority in the assembly and succeeded in establishing
complete control of the millions of acres of public lands. Responsible
government, a government that was elected by the people and was responsible to
the people, was instituted in 1848 by Sir Edmund Head, the lieutenant governor.
In the same year, Britain adopted a free-trade policy, giving New Brunswick
almost total economic independence but depriving it of important British
markets. To the amazement of the merchants, free trade, after a poor start,
brought a higher level of prosperity than the colony had known before.
Shipbuilders won world fame in 1852 when the Marco Polo, built in Saint
John, made its record voyage from England to Australia. The 1854 Reciprocity
Treaty with the United States, in which both countries agreed to reduce the
duties, or charges, on traded goods, and the American Civil War (1861-1865)
further increased the volume of foreign trade and the pace of economic
development.
| I | Confederation |
By the 1860s, New Brunswick’s future
appeared bleak. The United States was seeking to end the 1854 treaty, and iron
was gradually replacing wood in ships. Railway construction had already
connected Saint John and Shediac, but plans for an intercolonial railroad had
reached an impasse. There was widespread unrest as the Fenians, a revolutionary
group fighting for Ireland’s independence from Britain, gathered support in the
United States. The supporters were anti-English and tried to affect Britain by
invading Canada in 1866. The attempt, however, was unsuccessful.
Samuel Leonard Tilley, the premier of
the New Brunswick colony, had committed New Brunswick to a union of the British
North American colonies at the 1864 Charlottetown and Québec conferences, but
the plan was rejected locally. Although there was still strong opposition,
British and Canadian pressures, including the promise of railway construction,
proved to be decisive. On July 1, 1867, New Brunswick joined the union, which
was called Confederation, becoming one of the four original provinces of the
Dominion of Canada along with Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Québec.
| J | After Confederation |
Railway ties with Québec and Halifax
were completed in 1876, and Saint John was linked with Montréal and Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1890. Railroads led to the rapid development of Moncton, but
they generally failed to stimulate further growth. The small secondary
industries could not compete with the more efficient manufacturing
establishments elsewhere in Canada. As a result, most of them disappeared. Trade
revived temporarily during World War I (1914-1918) in spite of wartime hazards,
but the province was not able to duplicate its former success.
| K | Economy and Society |
Along with the rest of Canada, New
Brunswick was hurt by the global economic depression of the 1930s. Still the
province worked to diversify its economy by starting textile mills and pulp and
paper industries. The province, however, could not compete with the industrial
advances in the rest of Canada. It did not benefit from the prosperity in other
Canadian provinces because these provinces did not share their tax revenues with
other provinces. By the 1950s New Brunswick had a lower standard of living than
the national average and higher rates of infant mortality and illiteracy.
During the 1960s Liberal Party leader
Louis J. Robichaud—the province’s first elected Acadian premier—began efforts to
reduce the large disparities in access to services and quality of life between
New Brunswick’s rural and urban populations. The provincial government assumed
responsibility for programs that had previously been administered by the
municipal governments, including education, medicine, and social services. The
provincial government was then able to directly distribute services and
financial assistance throughout the province.
Under Robichaud New Brunswick also
attempted to further industrialize its economy. Industries such as mining,
forestry, and fishing were expanded or modernized. In 1971 a cargo terminal was
opened in Saint John that encouraged a major expansion of the province’s
transport business. In 1982 a nuclear power plant was opened at Point Lepreau,
which today generates a significant portion of New Brunswick’s electricity
production.
| L | Recent Events |
From 1970 to 1987 Richard Bennett
Hatfield of the Progressive Conservative Party was premier, and he continued
many of Robichaud’s programs. In 1987 the Liberals again gained control of the
government, winning all the seats in the provincial legislature. The Liberals
retained a majority in the 1991 and 1995 elections and worked to create jobs,
bring new businesses to New Brunswick, and strengthen the economy. Although they
were successful in reducing the provincial deficit, the Liberals failed to
decrease New Brunswick’s consistently high unemployment rate. In 1999 the
Liberals suffered a surprise defeat by the Progressive Conservative Party, which
focused on cutting government spending, reducing taxes, eliminating highway
tolls, and creating hundreds of new health-care jobs. The Progressive
Conservatives narrowly maintained power in the 2003 provincial elections,
although the party lost 19 seats.
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