Mfecane
I | INTRODUCTION |
Mfecane, period of upheaval in southern Africa in the
early decades of the 19th century, characterized by widespread warfare between
chiefdoms centered in what is now eastern South Africa, and the subsequent mass
migrations of numerous other chiefdoms. The term mfecane comes from a
Nguni word that means “the crushing.” It is also known as difaqane, the
Southern Sotho equivalent. The mfecane reshaped the political and cultural map
of southern Africa, as new kingdoms and chiefdoms were formed while others were
engulfed or shattered.
II | CAUSES OF THE MFECANE |
For years, historians generally believed that
the mfecane was caused by the emergence of the aggressive Zulu kingdom.
Recently, however, some historians have contended that the emphasis on Zulu
expansion has obscured the role that European colonialism may have played in
triggering the violence. While the causes of the mfecane are still being
debated, most historians agree that the expansion of some chiefdoms in
southeastern Africa and the centralization of others brought emerging states
into conflict.
One reason for the conflict may have been
intensifying competition for land. Maize was introduced to the region by the
early 18th century, and as it became a plentiful staple, population density
grew. By the end of the century, overfarming and overgrazing had depleted the
amount of usable land. Local chiefdoms, whose economies were based on cattle,
were forced to extend and defend their control over year-round grazing lands in
order to survive.
Another reason for the conflict may have been
the destabilizing effect the global trade in slave and ivory had on the region.
Colonists from Britain’s Cape Colony, to the southwest, had conducted raids into
the region to acquire labor since the 17th century. In the same period,
Portuguese traders based at ports on the southeastern coast of Africa fed an
increasing demand for slave labor on South American plantations and hunted
extensively for ivory for the international market. In response to these
incursions, local chiefdoms sought to establish control over the lucrative trade
routes and, possibly, to organize defenses against slave raids. This led to
military expansion and the development of new social and political structures.
A key aspect of this process was the
development of the amabutho system. In this system, all the young men of
a chiefdom were grouped into regiments (amabutho) according to their age.
The amabutho served multiple purposes. They were used to perform labor, police
the chiefdom’s subjects, and defend the chiefdom against outside enemies. For
their service, the amabutho required reward, particularly in the form of cattle,
and this could best be gained by raiding neighboring peoples. Additional cattle
required wider grazing lands, so raids inevitably turned into wars of
territorial conquest. In the early years of the 19th century, conflicts over
cattle and land were sharpened by a major drought.
III | WARS, MIGRATIONS, AND NEW STATES |
The course of the mfecane is a complicated
one, with clashes leading to migrations, migrations leading to the rise of new
states, and the rise of new states leading to further clashes and migrations.
The central clashes of the mfecane, those that caused the initial migrations,
took place in an area that would later be known as Zululand, in what is now
eastern South Africa. This area is roughly bounded by the Thukela (Tugela) River
to the southwest, the Phongolo (Pongola) River to the north, and the Indian
Ocean to the southeast.
A | Initial Clashes |
At the start of the 19th century the region
was divided into numerous small chiefdoms, the most powerful being the Ndwandwe
and Mthethwa. Starting in the late 1810s, conflict between these two chiefdoms
began to dislodge their lesser neighbors, such as the Ngwane. The Ngwane people
fled, splitting into two groups. One group, led by Sobhuza, moved into the
mountains north of the Phongolo River and began building up a large state that
would eventually become the Swazi kingdom (see Swaziland). The other
Ngwane group, led by Matiwane, fled to the west, to the foothills of the
Drakensberg Mountains. There they defeated the Hlubi chiefdom, scattering them
in several directions. Near the Indian Ocean coast, the Qwabe consolidated their
territory in defense, pushing out the Thuli and Cele. These chiefdoms were
forced southward across the Thukela River into what later became Natal.
B | Zulu Wars |
In 1817 the Ndwandwe, under Zwide,
defeated and broke up the Mthethwa, led by Dingiswayo. Their victory brought
them into direct conflict with the small but militarily powerful Zulu chiefdom
under Shaka. In the course of the struggle, the Zulu consolidated their position
by incorporating some lesser chiefdoms, notably the Qwabe, or forcing others,
such as the Bhele, Chunu, and Tembu, to flee south. The Tembu, led by Ngoza,
moved destructively through Natal as far as the Mthamvuna River, where they were
broken up around 1822 by the Mpondo, under Faku.
In 1819 the Zulu defeated the Ndwandwe and
took over their former territory. The Ndwandwe were forced north across the
Phongolo River. A group of Ndwandwe refugees, led by Soshangane, fled into what
is now southern Mozambique, where they overran the local Tsonga people and
became known as the Gaza. Soshangane went on to create the Gaza Empire, which
stretched along the coast from Delagoa Bay to the lower Zambezi. In 1826 other
Ndwandwe groups attempted to strike back against the Zulu, but were finally
destroyed. Many Ndwandwe refugees, led by Zwangendaba and Nxaba, fled towards
Gaza. In 1831 they clashed with Soshangane, who forced them north across the
Zambezi. There they overran the Rozwi Empire, in what is now Zimbabwe. These
Ndwandwe people, who became known as the Jere or the Ngoni, subsequently spread
out into present-day Zambia, Malawi, and finally Tanzania, where Zwangendaba
founded the Ngoni Kingdom.
C | Ngwane-Hlubi Wars and Clashes in the Interior |
During the 1820s the Zulu expanded
southward, defeating the Chunu again and forcing them as far south as the
Mzimkhulu River. The Ngwane, under Matiwane, were driven westward over the
Drakensberg Mountains to the Mohokare (Caledon) River area. There they came into
conflict with the Hlubi and the Tlokwa, and from 1821 to 1824 these groups
warred fiercely. In 1825 the Ngwane defeated the Hlubi once and for all, but in
1827 they were attacked by the Zulu and driven south towards Britain’s Cape
Colony. Colonial forces and local African allies finally scattered the Ngwane in
August 1828.
These wars and migrations wreaked havoc on
peoples of the interior of what is now South Africa. The situation was
complicated further by the arrival of the Griqua people, who were being driven
north from the Cape Colony by the expansion of white settlement. Equipped with
firearms and horses, the Griqua displaced a number of Tswana chiefdoms on the
southern fringes of the Kalahari Desert, including the Tlharo and the Tlhaping.
The Rolong community was also forced north into the region, where it clashed
with the Taung near the Molopo River. The Taung had been driven northwest from
the Mohokare River area by the wars of the Hlubi and Ngwane in the early 1820s.
The Kololo, a Sotho people, entered the
same region in the early 1820s after being driven from their homeland south of
the Vaal River by the Ngwane-Hlubi wars. In 1823 the Kololo clashed with the
Griqua and turned north into the Kalahari Desert. They eventually crossed the
Zambezi and finally settled in what is now western Zambia after overthrowing the
powerful Lozi Kingdom in 1840.
D | Founding of the Sotho Nation |
The Ngwane-Hlubi wars also drove loosely
organized Sotho communities north into the fertile, mountainous lands between
the Orange and Mohokare rivers. There, around 1824, a village leader and shrewd
diplomat named Moshoeshoe founded the Sotho nation (see Lesotho). Strong
fighting skills and mountainous terrain helped the Sotho fend off successive
attacks by the Ngwane, Korana, and Ndebele. Sekonyela of the Tlokwa also
succeeded in forming a stable chiefdom north of Mohokare River, but it was
eventually conquered by Moshoeshoe in 1853.
E | Refugee Peoples |
The Qwabe broke away from the Zulu in 1829
and fled south to between the Mzimkhulu and Mzimvubu rivers. There they were
attacked and scattered by the Mpondo chiefdom, which had managed to remain
intact despite a number of Zulu raids and waves of refugees. Various groups of
refugees forged new chiefdoms in the region squeezed between Zulu and Mpondo,
notably the Bhaca. Many refugee groups without cattle settled among the Xhosa
chiefdoms on the borders of the Cape Colony, and served as dependents. These
people became known as the Mfengu, and many eventually migrated into the Cape
Colony to serve as peasant landowners and artisans in colonial society.
F | Founding of the Ndebele Chiefdom |
In 1822 Mzilikazi, leader of the Khumalo
people, fell out with Shaka, the Zulu king, and fled to the northwest. He built
up a following from among the indigenous Sotho and Pedi and from refugees from
the Zulu wars, like the Ndwandwe. This group became known as the Ndebele. In
1827 Mzilikazi moved southwest to the Magaliesberg mountain range and created a
new chiefdom. The Ndebele destroyed the Taung in 1829. In 1832, to avoid Zulu,
Griqua, and Korana attacks, Mzilikazi moved farther west, to the Marico River,
where he displaced several Tswana chiefdoms. The Ndebele raided successfully in
all directions, particularly against the Tswana and Rolong. Starting in 1836,
however, the Ndebele clashed with groups of Voortrekkers, white
Afrikaners emigrating from the Cape Colony with the intention of settling in the
interior. The Ndebele were no military match for the Voortrekkers, who were
equipped with firearms and wagons, and after a decisive defeat in 1837 the
Ndebele migrated north across the Limpopo River. There they established a new
kingdom at Bulawayo, in what later became southern Zimbabwe.
G | Resilience of the Pedi |
In the 1820s the Pedi, a northern Sotho
group living mainly in the region now known as Limpopo Province (in far
northeastern South Africa), came under attack from both the Ndwandwe and the
Ndebele. However, under Sekwati, the Pedi weathered the siege and reasserted
themselves as the dominant local power.
IV | END OF THE MFECANE |
In most areas, the situation stabilized by
the 1840s, when newly formed chiefdoms had became large and powerful enough to
defy their neighbors with success. It is impossible to calculate the number of
people who were forced to move or were killed during the mfecane, but there is
no doubt as to the extent of the devastation and the degree of suffering
endured. By the 1830s unremitting Zulu and Ndebele raids had depopulated some
regions to such an extent that Voortrekkers entering the area believed that they
were discovering previously uninhabited lands on which they could settle at
will. In this way, the mfecane helped stimulate the advance of white settlers
into the interior. However, strong new states such as the Sotho, Zulu, or Swazi
kingdoms were often able to deflect or contain the white advance. Paradoxically,
therefore, while helping bring about white dominion over southern Africa, the
mfecane also created the African kingdoms that outlived it.
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