I | INTRODUCTION |
Madagascar, island nation in the Indian Ocean,
separated from the southeastern coast of Africa by the Mozambique Channel.
Madagascar is made up of Madagascar Island, the fourth largest island in the
world, and several small islands. Madagascar was annexed by France in 1896 and
gained full independence in 1960. The country’s area totals 587,041 sq km
(226,658 sq mi). Antananarivo is the capital and largest city.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
A central mountainous plateau dominates the
island of Madagascar. Partly volcanic in origin, the uplands rise to 2,876 m
(9,436 ft) atop Maromokotro in the north. The massive Ankaratra Mountains, near
the city of Antananarivo, attain an elevation of 2,643 m (8,671 ft). The land
slopes steeply to a narrow lowland bordering the Indian Ocean in the east and to
a somewhat wider coastal plain along the Mozambique Channel in the west.
The country’s best soil is found along the
coast and in river valleys of the central plateau. The island’s soils are rich
in iron and therefore red in color. The pervasive color of the bare earth and of
the rivers that wash through the interior has given Madagascar the nickname
Great Red Island.
A | Rivers and Lakes |
The major rivers of Madagascar are the
Betsiboka, Tsiribihina, Mangoky, and Onilahy; all rise in the uplands near the
eastern coast and flow west to the Mozambique Channel through fertile valleys.
By contrast, rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean are short and swift, frequently
plunging from the uplands in waterfalls. The largest lake is Alaotra, near
Toamasina.
B | Climate |
The eastern part of Madagascar receives much
rain, brought onshore by southeastern trade winds, which are forced to rise and
drop moisture as they meet the eastern escarpment; annual precipitation in some
places exceeds 3,050 mm (120 in). The central plateau gets considerably less
moisture, and arid areas in the south and southwest receive less than 380 mm
(less than 15 in) of precipitation per year. Most of the rain falls from
November to April. The coastal regions generally are hot throughout the year.
The central plateau has a temperate climate, with warm summers and cool winters.
The average temperature range in Antananarivo on the plateau is 16° to 26°C (61°
to 79°F) in January and 9° to 20°C (48° to 68°F) in July.
C | Vegetation and Animal Life |
Tropical rain forests containing valuable
hardwoods (including rosewood, ebony, and raffia palm) are common in eastern
Madagascar. The coconut palm is extensively cultivated in the lowlands. The
eastern coastal lagoons and lower river valleys in the west are fringed with
mangroves. Savanna woodland and grasslands predominate in the drier western
regions, and desert vegetation occurs in the extreme southwest.
Madagascar’s animal life is unusual. There
are no large mammal species except those brought to the island by humans.
Lemurs, a primitive family of primate, are found chiefly in Madagascar. There is
an abundance of reptiles, including crocodiles, lizards, and chameleons. Insect
life is as varied as it is distinctive; the variety and rarity of the island’s
butterflies are unique. Although native species exhibit characteristics of both
African and Indian animal life, their differences indicate they evolved on
Madagascar during a long period of isolation. An estimated 90 percent of the
species inhabiting its tropical forests are endemic, meaning that they
are found nowhere else in the world.
D | Mineral Resources |
Madagascar has abundant mineral reserves,
although many have yet to be exploited. Chromite, graphite, mica, and gemstones
such as sapphire, topaz, and garnet are currently mined. The island also
contains valuable deposits of bauxite, ilmenite (a titanium ore), and coal.
E | Environmental Issues |
Madagascar’s growing population has put
increased pressures on the environment. The timber industry is less of a threat
to the island’s forests than slash-and-burn agriculture and reliance on fuelwood
for energy. The country suffers an annual deforestation rate of 0.4 percent
(1990–2005). In 2005, 22 percent of Madagascar’s total land area was
forested.
Inadequate sewage disposal, as well as
soil erosion caused by deforestation, has led to surface water pollution. Only
50 percent (2004) of the population has access to safe water, and only 34
percent has access to sanitation.
However, the country has a long history of
conservation. Efforts are under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting
eroded upland areas. The government has protected 2.6 percent (2007) of the
country’s total land area in national parks and reserves.
III | POPULATION |
Madagascar has an ethnically diverse
population of 20,042,551 (2008 estimate). The number of inhabitants was growing
at an annual rate of 3 percent in 2008. The average population density is 35
persons per sq km (89 per sq mi), with upland areas more densely populated than
coastal regions.
Only 27 percent of the population is
classified as urban. Antananarivo, the capital, is the largest city, with a
population (2003) of 1,678,000. Other important urban centers are Toamasina
(137,782), Mahajanga (106,780), Fianarantsoa (109,248), Toliara (1993, 80,826),
and Antsiraana (59,040).
Major ethnic groups in the interior are the
Merina (Hova), who make up about 27 percent of the total population, and the
related Betsileo (12 percent). Members of both groups are descended primarily
from people who emigrated from Indonesia by ad 900. Coastal areas are inhabited
mainly by peoples of mixed Malayo-Indonesian, black African, and Arab ancestry;
among these ethnic groups are the Betsimisaraka (15 percent), Tsimihety (7
percent), Sakalava (6 percent), and Antaisaka (5 percent).
A | Language and Religion |
The official languages of Madagascar are
the Merina dialect of Malagasy (a language of Malayo-Indonesian origin), French,
and English. Approximately 48 percent of the population follows traditional
Malagasy beliefs, recognizing an omnipotent deity and secondary divinities, the
latter including the earliest inhabitants of the island, legendary kings and
queens, and other great ancestors. There is a universal cult of ancestors and a
tradition of lavish funerals and elaborate rituals surrounding the dead. About
49 percent of the population adheres to Christianity and 2 percent to
Islam.
B | Education |
Education is compulsory from ages 6 to
14. Virtually all primary school-aged children were enrolled in school in
2002–2003, but only 14 percent of secondary school-aged children were in school.
In 2000 the adult literacy rate was 66.5 percent. Institutions of higher
education include the University of Antananarivo (1961), the University of
Toamasina (1977), and the University of Fianarantsoa (1988).
C | Cultural Institutions |
Leading libraries with collections of
Malagasy history, literature, culture, and arts are the National Library (1961)
in Antananarivo and the University of Antananarivo Library (1961). The
Historical Museum (1897) in Antananarivo and the University of Antananarivo
Museum of Art and Archaeology (1970) are the chief museums.
IV | ECONOMY |
Madagascar is one of the world’s poorest
countries, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $5.5 billion, or $287 per
person, in 2006. The economy remains, as in colonial times, predominantly
agricultural, with 78 percent of the labor force engaged in agricultural
activities. During the 1980s and late 1990s the agricultural sector was hurt by
frequent cyclones. Strikes and political instability also limited economic
growth in the 1990s and early 21st century. The government’s budget in 2006
included revenues of $3,214 million and expenditures of $3,198 million.
A | Agriculture |
Because of the mountainous terrain, only 5
percent of Madagascar is farmed. The chief food crop is rice, which is grown on
about one-half of the agricultural land. Since the early 1970s imports of this
staple food have been necessary to meet needs. Other important food crops are
cassava, sweet potatoes, corn, beans, and bananas. Leading cash crops are
coffee, vanilla, and cloves. Other important crops are sugarcane, cotton, sisal,
and tropical fruits. Cattle are the main livestock raised in Madagascar.
B | Forestry and Fishing |
In 2006 some 11.5 million cu m (407
million cu ft) of timber was cut, most of it for local use as fuel. Efforts are
under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The
fishing industry is expanding, and shrimp, lobsters, and fish products have
become significant sources of export revenue. Madagascar allows other countries
to fish in its exclusive maritime zone in exchange for compensation.
C | Mining and Manufacturing |
Mineral products of Madagascar include
chromite, mica, graphite, salt, and various gemstones. Food processing (meat
packing, brewing, and sugar refining) is the leading manufacturing industry.
Other manufactures include refined petroleum, textiles, soap, cement,
cigarettes, and paper.
D | Energy |
Madagascar’s people rely on traditional
fuels such as wood and charcoal for 84 percent (1997) of their energy needs. In
2003 Madagascar produced 825 million kilowatt-hours of electricity. Some 66
percent of all electricity is produced in hydroelectric facilities.
E | Foreign Trade |
Madagascar usually has a negative trade
balance. In 2003 imports were valued at $1,091 million and exports at $766
million. Foods such as coffee, cloves, vanilla, fruit, and shrimp accounted for
55 percent of export revenue in 2003. Other important exports were fabrics,
gemstones, chromite, and refined petroleum. Leading imports were petroleum,
foodstuffs, chemical products, machinery, vehicles and vehicle parts, and
electrical equipment. France is by far the leading trading partner, accounting
for about one-quarter of Madagascar’s trading activity. Other significant
purchasers of the country’s exports are the United States, Singapore, Germany,
and Mauritius; chief sources of imports in addition to France are the United
Arab Emirates, Bahrain, China, and South Africa.
F | Currency and Banking |
The Malagasy franc, divided into
100 centimes, is the currency unit (2,142 Malagasy francs equal U.S.$1; 2006
average). The Central Bank of Madagascar (founded 1973) is the bank of issue.
All banks were nationalized in 1975 but reopened to private and foreign
investment beginning in the late 1980s.
G | Transportation |
Antananarivo is the main hub of
Madagascar’s limited transportation system. Only about 12 percent (1999) of the
country’s roads are paved. Toamasina, the chief port, handles about 70 percent
of the nation’s foreign trade. Other port cities are Mahajanga, Toliara, and
Antsiraana. Madagascar has four major airports, including the international
airport at Antananarivo. Air Madagascar is the national airline.
H | Communications |
Until 1990 the state owned all
broadcasting operations in Madagascar. That year the state monopoly was
abolished by legislation that opened the industry to private stations working in
partnership with the government. State restrictions on publishing were also
lifted in the early 1990s. The daily newspapers published in Antananarivo
include Gazetiko (written in Malagasy), La Gazette de la Grande
Ile (French), and Midi Madagasikara (French and Malagasy).
V | GOVERNMENT |
In 1993 Madagascar replaced its single-party
socialist system with a multiparty democracy under terms of a new constitution
adopted the year before. The country is divided into six provinces, which are
subdivided into regions, departments, and communes.
A | Executive |
According to the 1992 constitution, the
head of state is the president, elected by the voters to a five-year term. The
president appoints a prime minister, who holds executive power.
B | Legislature |
Madagascar’s bicameral (two-chamber)
legislature is composed of a National Assembly and a Senate. The National
Assembly’s 160 members are directly elected to four-year terms. Of the 90 Senate
members, 60 are selected by an electoral college of provincial representatives
and 30 are appointed by the president, all to four-year terms.
C | Judiciary |
The judicial system is modeled on that of
France. It includes a High Constitutional Court; a Supreme Court; a Court of
Appeal; 11 courts of first instance; and special economic and criminal
tribunals.
D | Political Parties |
The National Front for the Defense of the
Madagascar Socialist Revolution was Madagascar’s only permitted political
organization from 1975 to 1990. Legislation approved that year allowed the
resumption of multiparty political activity, resulting in the formation of more
than 120 parties. Leading political organizations include Tiako I Madagasikara
(I Love Madagascar), Association pour la Renaissance de Madagascar (Association
for the Rebirth of Madagascar), and Ny Asa Vita No Ifampitsara (People Are
Judged by the Work They Do).
E | Defense |
Madagascar has a 13,500-member military,
with 12,500 of those personnel in the army. An 8,000-member gendarmerie performs
paramilitary functions.
F | International Organizations |
Madagascar is a member of the United
Nations, the African Union, and several other international organizations. It is
a signatory of the Lomé Convention, an agreement on cooperation between what is
now the European Union and 70 developing countries.
VI | HISTORY |
The people of Madagascar are believed to be
descended from Indonesians and Africans who reached the island in ancient times.
Diogo Dias, a Portuguese sea captain bound for India in 1500, was the first
European to sight the island. During the 17th century the Portuguese, the
English, and the French successively and unsuccessfully attempted to colonize
Madagascar.
A | French Encroachment |
The French gained a temporary foothold on
the island in 1642 but were driven out in 1674. They finally acquired a few
trading bases along the east coast in the following century. Their sphere of
influence was restricted, however, as a result of the rise of a powerful
monarchy among the Merina, a people of Malay origin in the central plateau. From
1810 to 1828, during the reign of the Merina king Radama I, who was hostile to
the French, the British gained influence. British officers trained Merina
troops, and British missionaries introduced schools and Christianity. Following
the death of Radama, a strong reaction against European culture developed.
Reforms were abolished, the missionaries were persecuted, and trade relations
with Britain were severed. On the accession of Radama II (in 1861), a generally
progressive ruler, some of the early reforms were reinstituted. Radama II, who
was friendly to the French, was subsequently murdered by the conservative
faction at the Merina court. A protracted period of strained relations and
recurrent hostilities with the French culminated in 1895 in submission by the
reigning monarch, Queen Ranavalona III. In 1896, as a result of popular
uprisings, Madagascar was proclaimed a colony of France; military rule was
instituted, and the queen was exiled.
Various reforms and improvements were
introduced in Madagascar during the following decades, but discontent with
French rule gradually assumed serious proportions. In 1916 a secret nationalist
society was outlawed, and hundreds of its members were jailed.
In May 1942, two years after the fall of
France in World War II, the British government, fearful that the Japanese would
seize Madagascar, dispatched an expeditionary force to the island. In 1943 the
British surrendered control to the Free French government. The postwar period
was marked by a resumption of nationalist agitation.
B | Movement Toward Independence |
Under the provisions of the French
constitution of 1946, Madagascar and some dependencies became an overseas
territory of France. The constitution established elective Madagascan provincial
assemblies with limited powers. In March 1947, nationalists in east Madagascar
began an armed revolt against the French that was not suppressed until August.
After the revolt the government emphasized efforts to improve the economy by
extending the road system and by exploiting coal deposits more
systematically.
During the 1950s France took measures to
increase self-government on the island. Elections held in 1951, 1952, and 1957
generally favored those who advocated gradual attainment of independence. The
constitution of the Fifth Republic of France was approved by 78 percent of the
Madagascan electorate in a referendum held on September 28, 1958. A subsequent
congress of the members of the provincial councils proclaimed Madagascar,
renamed the Malagasy Republic, a semiautonomous member of the French Community.
Philibert Tsiranana, leader of the Social Democratic Party, was inaugurated as
president and head of state on November 1. On June 26, 1960, the republic became
fully autonomous while retaining a cordial association with France. In September
it was admitted to the United Nations.
C | Ratsiraka’s Rule |
After a decade of political stability,
Malagasy underwent serious unrest in the early 1970s, although Tsiranana was
reelected for the second time in January 1972. In the spring, however, a student
strike grew into general rioting, and Tsiranana was forced to turn power over to
the army chief of staff, General Gabriel Ramanantsoa. Ramanantsoa was ousted by
other elements of the military in early 1975; in June, Lieutenant Commander
Didier Ratsiraka was named head of state. On December 30, the country was
renamed the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and on January 4, 1976, Ratsiraka
began a seven-year term as president.
Economic pressures in the late 1970s added
to political unrest, to which the government responded with a series of alerts
and arrests; alleged antigovernment plots were reported in 1977, 1980, and 1982.
Reelected in November 1982 and March 1989, Ratsiraka suppressed another coup
attempt in May 1990. After massive antigovernment demonstrations, he promised in
August 1991 to institute democratic reforms; a transitional government took
office in November, and a new constitution was approved by popular referendum in
August 1992. Albert Zafy defeated Ratsiraka in a presidential runoff election in
February 1993.
The transition to civilian rule was marked
by opposition from troops loyal to Ratsiraka and by conflicts with the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) regarding the exchange rate of the Malagasy
franc. In September 1996 the National Assembly impeached Zafy for, among other
things, failing to reach an agreement with the IMF. Zafy officially stepped down
in October, and new presidential elections were held in December. Ratsiraka
defeated Zafy and was proclaimed president once again in January 1997.
D | Recent Developments |
Ratsiraka also struggled with the IMF, and
delays in obtaining IMF relief funds led to an erosion of support for his
administration. In December 2001 presidential elections Ratsiraka finished
second to Marc Ravalomanana, the popular mayor of Antananarivo and a self-made
multimillionaire. However, because the vote count showed that neither candidate
received more than 50 percent of the vote, a runoff election was required. But
Ravalomanana rejected the results of the vote count, claiming to have won more
than 50 percent of the vote. Backed by the overwhelming support of Antananarivo
residents, he had himself sworn in as president in February 2002. Ratsiraka
refused to step down, demanding that the runoff election take place. Supported
by rural and coastal provinces, Ratsiraka established a rival government at the
port city of Toamasina. Madagascar’s High Constitutional Court conducted a
recount and in April declared Ravalomanana the rightful winner with more than 51
percent of the vote. Most of the international community recognized
Ravalomanana’s presidency over the subsequent months. Ratsiraka fled Madagascar
for France in July.
Ravalomanana’s party, Tiako I Madagasikara
(“I Love Madagascar”), easily won parliamentary elections in December 2002. The
new government’s priorities included improving the country’s infrastructure
(especially the paving of roads), expanding education and health services, and
fighting corruption. Imposing businesslike objectives for government ministers,
Ravalomanana successfully encouraged international aid and investment in
Madagascar. Although opponents accused Ravalomanana of using his position to
further his own business interests, he remained popular. Ravalomanana was
reelected to a second five-year term in December 2006, winning nearly 55 percent
of the vote.
In a referendum held in April 2007, voters
approved constitutional changes giving more powers to the president. The
expanded powers included the authority to make laws directly during a
president-imposed state of emergency. Ravalomanana’s party won by a landslide in
parliamentary elections held in September 2007.
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