Idaho

I

INTRODUCTION

Idaho, state in the western United States, forming the eastern section of the Pacific Northwest. Idaho is an area of striking physical diversity and natural beauty. The state’s many natural resources have long been the basis of its economic output and development, and they remain a key to its future progress.

Idaho is primarily a mountainous state; much of it is covered by the Rocky Mountains. High, often snowcapped peaks, broad expanses of plateaus and upland slopes, and some of the finest forestlands in the United States occupy central and northern Idaho. The mountains of the central portion of the state have long formed a barrier to communication between north and south and between east and west. North of these mountains lies a narrow section known as the Panhandle, noted for its numerous lakes and forests and abundant mineral resources.

South of the central mountains and in contrast with the rest of the state is the Snake River Plain. The plain, which is the dominant feature of southern Idaho, curves across the width of the state as a broad treeless expanse of land. It includes the most densely and most sparsely settled sections of the state. The plain includes most of the state’s principal cities and accounts for much of Idaho’s farm output, but it also includes some of the most desolate areas in the Pacific Northwest. Sheets of hardened lava, volcanic craters and cinder cones, and desolate crags and pinnacles form an almost totally barren landscape. Nevertheless, even these desolate areas are not without economic value, for they attract numerous tourists and contain some mineral wealth.

Economic development has proceeded at a rapid pace in Idaho since the 1940s. Agriculture, along with other primary activities, continues to be the basis of the economy, but gains have been made in manufacturing, particularly in food processing, the manufacture of wood products, and high-technology industries. Tourism and recreation are also important sources of income. Boise is Idaho’s capital and largest city.

Idaho entered the Union on July 3, 1890, as the 43rd state. Its name was for many years popularly held to be a Native American word meaning “gem of the mountains.” However, some believe the name was actually coined in 1860 by white politician George M. Willing, an unsuccessful candidate for congressional delegate from the mining region of Pikes Peak in Colorado. He proposed Idaho as the name for the Colorado territory, but it was rejected when it was revealed that the name was not a Native American word. But the name took hold in the mining regions of what was to become Idaho, and the Congress of the United States designated the territory with the name when it was formed in 1863. The popularly accepted meaning of the word Idaho gave rise to the state’s nickname as the Gem State. Idaho also is known as the Potato State, after its leading crop.

II

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Idaho, the 14th largest state in the Union, has an area of 216,445 sq km (83,570 sq mi) including 2,132 sq km (823 sq mi) of inland water. In shape, Idaho consists of a broad rectangular area in the south, based on the line of latitude 42° north, and a long narrow strip in the north that is known as the Panhandle. The state has a maximum length from north to south of 777 km (483 mi), and it varies in width from 496 km (308 mi) along its southern border to only 72 km (45 mi) in the Panhandle. The mean elevation is about 1,500 m (5,000 ft). The federal government controlled 65 percent of Idaho’s total land area in 2002.

A

Natural Regions

Idaho can be divided into four natural regions, or physiographic provinces, each of which is part of a larger physiographic region of the United States. The four natural regions are the Northern Rocky Mountains, Middle Rocky Mountains, Columbia Plateau, and Basin and Range province. The Northern and Middle Rockies are parts of a larger physiographic division, the Rocky Mountain System. The Columbia Plateau and the Basin and Range province are part of the larger Intermontane Plateaus.

The Northern Rocky Mountains occupy more than half of Idaho. In central Idaho the Salmon River Mountains and Clearwater Mountains form a vast, geologically complex highland mass. The Salmon River Mountains have a maximum elevation of 3,152 m (10,340 ft), at Twin Peaks, and the Clearwater Mountains attain elevations of more than 2,400 m (8,000 ft). Southeast of the Salmon River Mountains, Borah Peak, or Mount Borah, the highest point in Idaho, rises to 3,859 m (12,662 ft) in the Lost River Range. Other ranges in the southern part of the region are the Sawtooth and Pioneer mountains, which rise to 3,681 m (12,078 ft) at Hyndman Peak. To the east the Bitterroot Mountains forms a high, rugged barrier along the Idaho-Montana state line. In the Panhandle the mountains decrease in elevation, but they are no less rugged.

Deep canyons, rocky gorges, and innumerable ridges make transportation difficult throughout the region. There are few good passes through the mountains, especially the Bitterroot Mountains and Salmon River Mountains. Most of the mountains are heavily forested. This natural region is the source of most of Idaho’s mineral output.

The Middle Rocky Mountains occupy a belt along the Idaho-Wyoming boundary. The chief ranges include the Aspen, Bear River, Caribou, Preuss, and Snake River ranges. They attain heights of more than 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and run from north to south.

The Columbia Plateau, in Idaho, is diverse, and includes the Snake River Plain, part of the Owyhee Uplift, and small portions of the Seven Devils, Craig Mountain, and Palouse sections.

The great crescent-shaped Snake River Plain descends from 1,800 m (about 6,000 ft) above sea level near the Wyoming border to less than 760 m (2,500 ft) at the Oregon border. Thick lava flows cover or underlie most of the plain, which has numerous thermal springs, cinder cones, high basaltic cliffs, and other features of volcanic origin. The Snake River lies near the southern edge of the lava flows. The plain is far wider than the river valley, and it extends northward for as much as 80 km (50 mi) from the river. Large irrigated areas support much of Idaho’s agriculture. Most of the state’s population lives in the Snake River Plain.

The Owyhee Uplift occupies the southwestern corner of Idaho. The main features of this section are the rugged Owyhee Mountains, high basaltic plateaus, and the deep Bruneau River canyon. The Seven Devils, Craig Mountain, and Palouse sections occupy a small portion of northern Idaho east of the part of the Snake River that forms the state’s western border. They contain a few small but productive areas of farmland, especially in the Lewiston area. In the Palouse section there are gently sloping hills that have a distinctive dunelike appearance. They were formed at the close of the Ice Age about 10,000 years ago by the deposition of fine, wind-blown deposits called loess.

The Basin and Range province occupies a small area of southern Idaho between the Middle Rocky Mountains and the Snake River Plain. The principal ranges are between about 1,200 and 1,800 m (about 4,000 and 6,000 ft) above sea level and run generally from north-south. Small valleys between the ranges, where water for irrigation is available, are used for farming, and the mountain slopes are used for livestock grazing.

B

Rivers and Lakes

The Continental Divide, which separates streams draining to the Pacific Ocean from those draining to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, follows part of the Idaho-Montana state line in the southern part of the Bitterroot Mountains. Consequently, nearly all the rivers in the state drain toward the Pacific. Most of Idaho lies within the drainage basin of the Columbia River system. The Snake River, which is the chief river in southern and central Idaho, follows a crescent-shaped course for about 790 km (about 490 mi) across southern Idaho. It then swings northward along the Idaho state line and joins the Columbia River in Washington. Major tributaries of the Snake River in Idaho are the Boise, Payette, Clearwater, and Salmon rivers. The main tributaries of the Columbia River in northern Idaho are the Saint Joe and Coeur d’Alene rivers, which form the Spokane River at Coeur d’Alene Lake. The Kootenai, Clark Fork, and Pend Oreille rivers flow for part of their length in Idaho. Small areas in the south drain southward into the Great Basin.

The rivers of Idaho are widely used for irrigation and hydroelectric power production, especially in the south. However, the Snake River is used for navigation as far upstream as Lewiston. Major road and railroad routes follow the principal valleys, although canyons along the Snake, Salmon, and other rivers pose major problems for road builders. The deepest gorge is Hells Canyon, also called Seven Devils Canyon, Box Canyon, Grand Canyon of the Snake River, or Snake River Canyon. The canyon, the deepest in the United States, has a maximum depth of 2,400 m (about 7,900 ft). The river at the point it leaves the state is the lowest point in Idaho, at 216 m (710 ft) above sea level.

Lakes are abundant in Idaho, and most of the large ones are located in the Panhandle. The state’s largest lake is Pend Oreille Lake, which covers 344 sq km (133 sq mi). It is fed by the waters of Clark Fork and is drained by the Pend Oreille River. Other large natural lakes are Coeur d’Alene Lake, Priest Lake, and the Upper and Lower Payette lakes. Reservoirs created by irrigation and power dams include the Dworshak, American Falls, Cascade, Palisades, Brownlee, Blackfoot, Lucky Peak, Island Park, Anderson Ranch, and Arrowrock.

Idaho’s abundant water resources play a key role in the state’s economy because much of the state’s agricultural production is dependent on irrigation. About 1.2 million hectares (about 3.1 million acres) of cropland in Idaho are irrigated. This irrigated area covers 51 percent of all cropland and accounts for an even larger share of Idaho’s income from agricultural production. The Snake River and its tributaries are the chief source of surface water. Dams and reservoirs even out the irregular flow of the rivers by holding back snow meltwater in early spring and summer and by releasing it for use in the dry summer months. Underground water from wells is increasingly being used for irrigation projects in the Snake River Plain.

C

Climate

The plains, basins, and valleys of Idaho generally have a dry climate, with cold winters and hot summers. Cooler and generally wetter conditions prevail in the mountains throughout the year.

C1

Temperature

In winter, temperatures in western Idaho are generally higher than those in eastern Idaho. Average January temperatures in southern Idaho range from -2° C (29° F) at Boise to about -8° C (about 18° F) at the eastern end of the Snake River Plain. In the mountains of the southeast, near Yellowstone National Park, the January average is only about -11° C (about 12° F). Temperatures of extreme cold rarely occur in Idaho because the high mountains along the eastern border protect the state from the icy blasts of Arctic air that frequently bring bitterly cold weather to the lands east of the Rockies.

In summer southwestern Idaho is the warmest part of the state, with average July temperatures of more than 23° C (74° F) at many places. Lower summer temperatures prevail in the mountains and in most of the Panhandle. In the valleys and plains of Idaho, daytime highs sometimes are in the upper 30°s C (lower 100°s F).

C2

Precipitation

Precipitation (rainfall and snowfall) varies greatly from place to place. It averages between about 200 and 500 mm (about 8 to 20 in) in most valley and plain areas. The high mountains in central Idaho and the Panhandle are the wettest sections, receiving as much as 1,300 mm (50 in) of precipitation a year. Most precipitation falls in the winter months, mainly in the form of snow. Snowfall is especially heavy in the mountains, and the remote areas of the state may be inaccessible for months. The snow melts quickly in western Idaho, but in the colder areas of the state it often lies on the ground for the entire winter.

D

Soils

The most productive soils in Idaho are the sierozems, or desert soils, that cover sections of the Snake River Plain and other areas. When irrigated, the sierozems can provide abundant crops of potatoes, alfalfa, grain, fruit, and vegetables. Prairie soils are found in the western part of the state, around Lewiston and Moscow. Like the other productive soils of Idaho, the prairie soils developed on loess, or wind-deposited material. However, here too, irrigation is often necessary. The remainder of the state is covered by poor soils. The mountain areas have thin, stony soils that are unsuited to agriculture. Thin, stony, and infertile soils imbedded with fragments of pumice and cinder cover the lava beds in the western Snake River Plain. Wide areas of the lava plains, as in Craters of the Moon National Monument, are devoid of soils.

E

Plant Life

Forests cover 41 percent of the land area of Idaho. Most of the forests are located in the Northern and Middle Rockies, below the timberline at about 3,000 m (about 10,000 ft). Among the trees found in Idaho are species of pine, fir, spruce, hemlock, larch, cedar, and other conifers. Ponderosa pine, a drought-resistant tree, flourishes in areas that receive as little as about 500 mm (about 20 in) of rain a year. The western white pine, or Idaho white pine, is the state tree. It grows in the wetter areas of northern Idaho in magnificent stands. Engelmann spruce usually grows at elevations above the white pine, and at even higher elevations, Alpine fir and mountain hemlock cling to bleak, exposed mountain slopes. Other common conifers are Douglas fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, western larch, lodgepole pine, and lowland, or grand, fir. Quaking aspen is the principal deciduous tree in Idaho and is common in the south, while birch are found in the Panhandle. Much of southern and southwestern Idaho is too dry for trees and is covered by sagebrush and bunchgrass, although cottonwood and box elder trees are numerous along stream courses. Almost three-fourths of the commercial forestland is federally owned. About one-fifth of the forestland is privately owned, and the rest is owned by the state.

Many different mosses, ferns, and wildflowers grow in Idaho. Several varieties of orchid are found deep in the forests, and violets and buttercups dot the mountain meadows in spring and summer. Other flowers include the camas, iris, bitterroot, wild hyacinth, lady’s slipper, larkspur, columbine, and sweet pea. Syringa, the state flower, and mountain laurel, rhododendron, huckleberry, and other flowering shrubs are also abundant. Water-loving plants include water plantain, skunk cabbage, and pond lilies, which are found along streams throughout the state. Fireweed, goldenrod, lupines, sand lilies, and sego lilies are common flowering plants in the dry areas of the state.

F

Animal Life

Idaho is one of the last great sanctuaries for larger mammals in the United States. Large animals found there include the moose, antelope, woodland caribou, wapiti (or elk), cougar (or mountain lion), grizzly bear, black bear, and lynx. Mule deer and white-tailed deer are common throughout the state. High in the mountains are found the bighorn, or Rocky Mountain sheep, and the mountain goat. Among the smaller mammals in the state are the beaver, coyote, red fox, wolverine, muskrat, otter, weasel, badger, snowshoe rabbit, jackrabbit, gopher, mink, marmot, raccoon, marten, fisher, and chipmunk. Several species of lizard and snake occur. The only poisonous snake is the Western rattlesnake.

Idaho lies on one path of the great bird migration route known as the Pacific flyway. In the fall, mallard, pintails, numerous other species of duck, Canada geese, and whistling swans stream southward across the state toward their winter feeding grounds. Seabirds, including species of tern, gull, and phalarope, sometimes wander inland as far as Idaho. Other water birds common to the state are the great blue heron, kingfisher, white pelican, double-crested cormorant, American avocet, coot, and several species of grebe, rail, and sandpiper. In addition to waterfowl, resident game birds include species of grouse and quail, and chukar, ring-necked pheasant, and gray, or Hungarian, partridge. Predatory birds found in Idaho are the bald eagle, golden eagle, and species of osprey, marsh hawk, owl, shrike, and hawk. The lower Saint Joe and Coeur d’Alene rivers are important osprey nesting areas. Among the numerous other bird species are the raven, yellow-headed blackbird, rock wren, Williamson’s sapsucker, red crossbill, robin, gray-headed junco, Rocky Mountain jay, Clark’s nutcracker, red-shafted flicker, mourning dove, and cowbird. There are also hummingbirds, warblers, and sparrows. The beautiful mountain bluebird is the state bird.

Idaho is noted for its abundant fish resources. The game fish found there include salmon, steelhead, trout, largemouth bass, crappie, bluegill, sturgeon, whitefish, channel catfish, and bullhead.

G

Conservation

Efforts have been made to preserve Idaho’s soils, forests, water, and wildlife. The principal conservation agencies active in Idaho include the Natural Resources Conservation Service, the United States Forest Service, the Idaho Forestry Management Bureau, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Idaho Fish and Game Department, the United States Bureau of Reclamation, and the United States Bureau of Land Management.

In 2006 the state had 6 hazardous waste sites on a national priority list for cleanup due to their severity or proximity to people.

Soil erosion can be severe in much of the state’s farm and rangelands, especially in areas of dry, finely textured soil such as in the Palouse region. Efforts to prevent erosion of agricultural lands include contour plowing on steep slopes and resowing of grass on slopes too steep for cultivation. On eroded grazing lands, reseeding to provide a new grass cover and a reduction of the numbers of livestock per acre are encouraged. One of the most serious problems is the destruction of the bunchgrass, as a result of overgrazing.

III

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Fur traders began operating in the Idaho country in the early years of the 19th century. However, by the 1840s, Idaho’s fur resources were largely depleted and the fur trade was in decline. After the discovery of gold at Pierce in 1860, mining became the principal economic activity; it remained so until the last years of the 19th century. The construction of railroads across Idaho in the 1880s spurred the expansion of mining and later the development of lumbering on a large scale. Initially, farming and ranching developed in Idaho to supply food to the mining camps. Beginning early in the 20th century, with the construction of federal and private irrigation projects on the Snake and other rivers, agricultural production greatly increased. In the 1970s manufacturing surpassed agriculture in the value of goods produced. Farming and ranching still provide important revenue, especially outside the major urban centers. The mining and forestry industries remain major employers, especially in the northern part of the state.

About 749,000 people held jobs in Idaho in 2006. Of those the largest share, 34 percent, worked in the diverse services industries, doing such jobs as working in restaurants or programming computers. Another 22 percent worked in wholesale or retail trade; 18 percent in federal, state, or local government, including those in the military; 10 percent in manufacturing; 6 percent in farming (including agricultural services), forestry, or fishing; 8 percent in construction; 18 percent in finance, insurance, or real estate; 20 percent in transportation or public utilities; and 0.7 percent in mining. In 2005, 5 percent of Idaho’s workers were unionized.

A

Agriculture

In 2005 there were 25,000 farms in Idaho. Of those, 54 percent produced an annual income of more than $10,000, a relatively high rate by national standards. Many of the remaining farms were sidelines for operators who held other jobs. Farmland occupied 4.8 million hectares (11.8 million acres), of which 52 percent was used to grow crops. While some of the rest of the land was tended pasture, the majority was rangeland used for grazing livestock.

A1

Patterns of Farming

The principal farming areas lie in the valleys of the Snake River and its tributaries, where vast irrigation projects have transformed the formerly dry lands into a productive farming region. In most of southern Idaho, precipitation is not sufficient to provide croplands with water. The chief nonirrigated farming area in Idaho is located in the northern part of the state. This area includes the Palouse section, which lies partly in Washington and which is the site of the fertile Palouse Hills. Dry-farming techniques are used to grow wheat and other crops in this nonirrigated area, especially in the vicinity of Lewiston and Moscow.

A2

Field Crops

Potatoes and wheat are the two principal crops in Idaho. Idaho is the leading producer of potatoes in the nation, accounting for one-third of the national production. Most of the Idaho potatoes are grown on irrigated land along the Snake River. Wheat is grown mainly in the Lewiston area. In areas that receive less than about 380 mm (about 15 in) of rain a year the wheat is grown by so-called dry farming techniques. The land is cultivated for one year and is left uncultivated, or fallow, the following year. Successful dry farming is dependent on the storage of moisture in the soil during the fallow year for use the next year. In more humid areas the land can be cultivated every year. There, wheat is grown in rotation with peas, which greatly improve the fertility of the soil. Other major field crops are hay, beans, sugar beets, and barley.

A3

Fruit and Specialty Crops

The principal fruit-growing area is in southwestern Idaho, where apples, plums, peaches, cherries, and grapes are grown. Vegetables are grown throughout the Snake River valley. Specialty crops grown in the state include alfalfa seed, hybrid sweet corn, peppermint and spearmint, red clover seed, a great variety of vegetable seeds, hops, and nursery products such as sod grass for lawns and ornamental trees.

A4

Livestock and Dairy Products

Idaho is an important cattle-raising state and is the 8th largest sheep-raising state. Cattle and sheep are raised in large numbers in the mountains and the drier sections of the state. The leading cattle-raising areas are in the Snake River valley. In summer many ranch cattle herds are grazed on rangelands high in the mountains; in the fall they are returned to the ranches in the valleys, where they are fed on hay and other fodder crops during the winter months. Beef cattle raised on farms remain there throughout the year and are fed on alfalfa and other fodder crops and on by-products of other crops, such as peas. Dairy cattle are raised on irrigated pastures, mostly in the western Snake River valley. They provide milk and other dairy products for the urban centers of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. Sheep are raised principally on the Columbia Plateau and in the Basin and Range region, in the southern part of the state. They graze on the higher mountain rangelands in summer and on the valley grasslands in winter. Idaho is a leading wool-producing state and a major lamb-producing state. Hogs and also chickens are raised, mainly in the Snake River valley.

B

Forestry

Although 41 percent of Idaho is forested, only a small fraction of that area is used for lumbering. Northern Idaho is the nation’s leading source of western white pine. Also important is ponderosa pine, much of which is cut in Boise National Forest. Lumber mills are located mainly in the Panhandle. Lewiston, the leading lumber center, is also the site of the state’s largest pulp and paper mill.

C

Mining

Gold, which once brought thousands of prospectors to Idaho, is now the state’s second most valuable mineral extraction, having fallen behind phosphate rock. Phosphate rock is mined in the southeastern corner of the state, between Montpelier and Fort Hall. Its principal use is in the making of fertilizer. The value of Idaho’s gold production reached an all-time high in the mid-1990s. Idaho is first among the states in the production of antimony, vanadium, and abrasive garnets.

Silver-lead-zinc deposits discovered in the 1880s near the present site of Kellogg continue to be productive. The three minerals are often derived from the same ore deposits. In 1997 Idaho ranked second among the states in the production of silver and third in lead. Mines in the Coeur d’Alene mining district are the deepest in the United States. The Star-Morning mine reached a depth of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) prior to its closure in the mid-1980s.

D

Manufacturing

Until recently, manufacturing was generally limited to processing raw materials produced in the state. In the 1990s, however, the manufacture of electronic components and industrial machinery emerged as the state’s leading manufacturing sectors. The processing of food remains an important industry. Lumber and wood production ranked fourth, and the making of chemicals and associated products was fifth.

The Boise metropolitan area has grown into an important center for high technology manufacturing, principally computers, peripheral equipment, and semiconductors. Flour mills, dairy and cheese factories, sugar beet refineries, and meatpacking and other food-processing plants are found throughout the agricultural areas. Wood products, as well as lumber, are produced throughout the state and include plywood, veneers, railroad ties, poles, boxes, and furniture. Wood pulp and paper are produced at Lewiston. Phosphate provides an important raw material for making chemicals and chemical products, including fertilizer. Other major employers are firms manufacturing railroad equipment and machinery used on farms. Numerous small manufacturing firms have been attracted to the area around Coeur d’Alene and Post Falls.

E

Electricity

The Snake River system is the major source of hydroelectric power, and there are numerous generating stations along the river and its tributaries. The principal sites of hydroelectric power production are the Palisades, American Falls, Minidoka, Shoshone Falls, Thousand Springs, Lower Salmon, Upper Salmon, Twin Falls, Bliss, Anderson Ranch, Strike, and Swan Falls dams. Brownlee, Oxbow, and Hells Canyon dams, on the Hells Canyon section of the Snake River along the Oregon-Idaho state line, are also major power dams. The huge Dworshak dam is on the North Fork of the Clearwater River. Cabinet Gorge and Albeni Falls dams are in northern Idaho, on the Pend Oreille River system. In 2005, 78.91 percent of the electricity generated in Idaho was produced in hydroelectric power plants. Some electricity is transmitted by high-voltage transmission lines to the industrial and urbanized areas throughout the West.

Fossil fuels are used in the state for heating, for cooking, and for operating motor vehicles and aircraft. Natural gas and petroleum products are used for these purposes. Natural gas is piped into Idaho from Canada and from other states. Pipelines also carry gasoline, residual oils, and other oil products into and across the northern part of the state from refineries in Montana and into and along the Snake River valley from Utah.

Small amounts of nuclear power are produced in Idaho for experimental purposes. A broad expanse of desolate lava plains around the Lost River sinks, near Arco in southeastern Idaho, is used by the federal government as a site for experimental power generation using nuclear fission as an energy source. Production of nuclear power was begun in 1951, and the town of Arco was the first community in the world electrified by nuclear power.

F

Tourist Industry

Tourism is an important source of income for Idahoans. Much of the tourist activity in the state is focused on the national forests and units of the National Park Service. During the winter months, skiing and other sports are popular in the mountains. Each year tourists spend $2.1 billion in the state.

G

Transportation

Road and rail transportation in and across Idaho has always been difficult, owing to the high, rugged mountains in the central and northern areas of the state and to the canyonlike character of many of the state’s river valleys. Interstate Highway 84 crosses the southern half of the state and follows part of the old Oregon Trail. Interstate 90 follows the old Mullan Road, which was built in the 1860s across the northern half of the state. U.S. Highway 95—much of it two lanes—is the only north-south route spanning the state. Primitive trails provide access to some of the more isolated areas. By 2005 Idaho had 75,847 km (47,129 mi) of highway, including 985 km (612 mi) of the federal interstate highway system.

Railroads played an important role in the development of Idaho, bringing waves of settlers well into the 1930s. Most of the tonnage of goods originating in the state and shipped by rail is composed of farm products (28 percent), nonmetallic minerals (18 percent), and lumber (24 percent). In 2004 Idaho had 2,461 km (1,529 mi) of railroad track. Two major transcontinental railroads cross the state in an east to west direction, and branch lines serve other parts of the state.

Water transportation is little used in Idaho except on the Snake River. Lewiston, which is the head of navigation on the river, is connected to Portland, Oregon, near the mouth of the Columbia River by a slack-water navigation system completed in 1975. This system is used primarily to transport grain to Portland for export. Some rivers in Idaho are used to transport logs from logging areas to sawmills.

Air transportation has expanded rapidly in recent years. All major cities in the state have commercial airports and are regularly scheduled airline stops. Air transportation is the only way to reach some of the more remote areas of the state. In 2007 the state had 7 airports, many of which were private airfields. The airport in Boise was the state’s busiest.

H

Trade

Boise, Pocatello, Idaho Falls, Nampa-Caldwell, Twin Falls, Coeur d’Alene, and Lewiston are the principal trade centers in Idaho. Much of northern Idaho’s trade is with nearby Spokane, Washington, while southeastern Idaho lies within the effective trading area of Salt Lake City, Utah.

IV

THE PEOPLE OF IDAHO

A

Population Patterns

According to the 2000 national census, Idaho ranked 39th among the states in population, with a total of 1,293,953. This represented an increase of 28.5 percent over the 1990 population of 1,006,749.

Idaho is among the most sparsely populated states in the nation, with an average density in 2006 of 7 persons per sq km (18 per sq mi). The population is very unevenly distributed. Most people live in the rich farmland areas of the Snake River valley in southern Idaho and in the western half of the Panhandle around the cities of Coeur d’Alene, Moscow, and Lewiston. Large sections of the mountainous areas in central and northern Idaho are practically uninhabited. Some 66 percent of the people live in urban areas; the rest live on farms or in the mountainous countryside.

Whites comprise the largest share of the population, with 91 percent of the people. Native Americans are 1.4 percent of the population, Asians are 0.9 percent, blacks are 0.4 percent, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders are 0.1 percent, and those of mixed heritage or not reporting race are 6.2 percent. Hispanics, who may be of any race, are 7.9 percent of the people. The Native Americans in Idaho belong mainly to the Nez Perce and Shoshone peoples. The largest reservation is the Fort Hall Reservation near Pocatello, and there are many other reservations in the state. The leasing of reservation lands to farmers is a source of income for some tribes.

The Basques, one of the most distinctive cultural and ethnic groups in Idaho, live mainly in the Boise area. They are the descendants of immigrants, many of them shepherds, from the Basque Country in northern Spain. Many of the Basques in Idaho have retained their distinctive customs, and each year they hold folk festivals in Boise.

B

Principal Cities

Idaho’s four largest cities are Boise, Nampa, Pocatello, and Idaho Falls. Boise, the state capital, had a population of 198,638 in 2006. The Boise metropolitan area, which includes Ada and Canyon counties, had a population of 524,884 (2004). Also included in the metropolitan region is Nampa, with a population of 76,587. A one-time trading post for miners, Boise now serves as the chief commercial, manufacturing, and cultural center of southwestern Idaho. It is also one of the principal cities of the interior Pacific Northwest. Pocatello had a population of 53,932 in 2006. Pocatello is an important transportation and industrial center. Idaho Falls, which had a population of 52,786, is the major city of the upper Snake River valley. Also in the valley is Twin Falls (40,380), the center of a prosperous farm region.

The largest city in northern Idaho is Coeur d’Alene, with a population of 41,328; it is a center for tourism and commerce in the Panhandle. Lewiston (31,293), which was a mining camp during the gold rush and, for a time, the capital of Idaho Territory, is a manufacturing center and also Idaho’s major river port. Moscow (22,352) is the home of the University of Idaho.

C

Religion

Nearly one-third of all church members in Idaho are Mormons, or adherents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The Roman Catholic Church represents about one-sixth of church membership; the rest of church members are divided among a large number of Protestant denominations.

Missionaries and religion played a major role in the development of Idaho during the 19th century. The first missionaries to reach Idaho, in the 1830s, were Protestants. The first mission was established in 1836 by Henry H. Spalding. The first Roman Catholic mission was founded in northern Idaho in 1842 by Father Nicholas Point, acting for Jesuit priest Father Pierre Jean De Smet. The Mormons founded their first mission in 1855.

V

EDUCATION AND CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

A

Education

In Idaho the first schools, which were for Native American children, were established in the first half of the 19th century. In 1860 the first school for the children of settlers was established by the Mormons in Franklin. When the territorial legislature met in 1864, it created the offices of territorial superintendent of schools and county superintendents to administer a system of free public schools. By 1865, 12 schools were operating in Idaho. In 1887 the legislature enacted a provision for compulsory education.

School attendance in Idaho is compulsory for all children from the age of 7 to 16. In addition to public school facilities, there are some parochial schools. Private schools enroll 4 percent of the state’s children.

In the 2002–2003 school year the state spent $6,978 on each student’s education, compared to the national average of $9,299. There were 17.9 students for every teacher (the national average was 15.9 students). Of those people older than 25 years of age in 2006, 87.3 percent had a high school diploma, compared to the national norm of 84.1 percent.

A1

Higher Education

The principal institutions of higher education in Idaho are the University of Idaho, in Moscow; Idaho State University, in Pocatello; and Boise State University. The University of Idaho, chartered in 1889, was opened as a land-grant university in 1892. Idaho State University was established as the Academy of Idaho. Its name was changed several times. It achieved university status in 1963.

Other four-year institutions of higher learning in Idaho include Northwest Nazarene University, in Nampa; Albertson College of Idaho, in Caldwell; and Lewis-Clark State College, in Lewiston. In 2004–2005 Idaho had 7 public and 7 private institutions of higher education.

B

Libraries

Some 106 tax-supported public libraries serve the residents of Idaho. Each year libraries circulate an average of 7.9 books for every resident. The city of Boise has the largest municipal library. The library of the University of Idaho, in Moscow, is the largest library in the state. Other notable college libraries are those of the Albertson College of Idaho and of Idaho State University. The repository for state records as well as for old Idaho manuscripts and newspapers is the library and archives of the Idaho State Historical Society, in Boise. The Idaho State Law Library, also in Boise, dates from 1869.

C

Museums

The works of Pacific Northwest artists are housed in the Boise Art Museum. The gallery was opened in 1937 and is the state’s outstanding art museum. The Idaho State Historical Museum, in Boise, includes noted exhibits of early Native American and pioneer life. The Idaho Museum of Natural History, at Idaho State University, features life and earth sciences exhibits. The museum also contains exhibits of archaeology and state history. A collection devoted to the early mining days of Idaho is housed in the Boise Basin Museum, in Idaho City.

D

Communications

By 2002 there were 11 daily newspapers being published in Idaho. Idaho’s first newspaper, the Golden Age, was founded as a weekly at Lewiston in 1862. The oldest continuously published newspaper in the state is the Boise Idaho Statesman, which was founded in 1864 as the Idaho Tri-Weekly Statesman. It later became a daily. Other leading dailies are the Lewiston Morning Tribune, the Twin Falls Times-News, the Idaho Falls Post Register, and the Coeur d’Alene Press.

The first radio broadcasts in Idaho were made in 1921 from a station known as 74A, located in Boise. It later became KIDO. The first television stations in the state began operations in Boise in 1953. By 2002 there were 39 AM and 50 FM radio stations and 11 television stations operating in Idaho.

E

Music and Theater

Most of the early settlements in Idaho had opera houses where plays and musical shows were performed. There are now numerous little-theater groups and community concert organizations in the state.

The Boise Philharmonic is the most prominent of the orchestras in Idaho. Boise Music Week has been held annually for many years. The Idaho International Folk Dance Festival is held annually in Rexburg, featuring authentic folk dancers from around the world.

VI

RECREATION AND PLACES OF INTEREST

Idaho’s mountains, lakes, streams, and extensive wilderness areas make it a haven for outdoor activities. Principal ski areas include Silver Mountain, near Kellogg; Schweitzer Basin, near Sandpoint; Brundage Mountain, near McCall; and Bogus Basin, near Boise. The world-famous Sun Valley, opened in 1936 by the Union Pacific Railroad, is an important summer and winter resort. Hunters travel from around the world to search for big game in the state’s backcountry, some of which is accessible only by foot or horseback. Idaho is also renowned for sport fishing, especially in the northern rivers and lakes, where there are several varieties of salmon and trout.

A

National Parks

Craters of the Moon National Monument covers 217 sq km (84 sq mi) of extinct volcanoes and lava formations in the south central part of Idaho. In City of Rocks National Reserve, in southern Idaho, are odd granite clusters that resemble villages. Nez Perce National Historical Park, which includes a portion in northern Idaho, is dedicated to the history of the Nez Perce people and the Lewis and Clark Expedition. A small section of Yellowstone National Park extends into northeastern Idaho at the Wyoming state line. The Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument is on the Snake River, the carving action of which has exposed extraordinary fossil beds.

B

National Forests

The ten national forests in Idaho cover 8.3 million hectares (20.4 million acres), or about two-fifths of the state. Idaho’s national forests are noted for their magnificent scenery, variety of wildlife, and superb stands of tall timber. They also include large areas of grassland and rocky mountain slopes. Boise National Forest, in western Idaho, is the largest and covers more than 1 million hectares (2.6 million acres). Most of the forest lies within the Idaho Batholith—a large and highly erosive geologic formation. Through uplift, faulting, and subsequent dissection by streams, a mountainous landscape has developed. A portion of the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness, the Sawtooth Wilderness, Sawtooth National Recreation Area, and the Middle Fork of the Salmon River, a part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, are near or in the forest.

The Challis National Forest has a diversity of landscapes, including the rugged exposed heights of Borah Peak, Idaho’s tallest mountain. Stretching between Oregon and Montana in north central Idaho is the Nez Perce National Forest. Within it is the canyon of the Snake River, the deepest gorge in North America. At Hells Canyon, on the Idaho-Oregon state border, there is a vertical drop of about 2,100 m (about 7,000 ft). More than 1 million hectares (about 2.5 million acres) of the Idaho Panhandle National Forests, which extends into eastern Washington and western Montana, lie within northern Idaho. The forest includes some of Idaho’s most scenic mountain ranges—the Selkirk, Cabinet, Coeur d’Alene, and Bitterroot mountains—and three of Idaho’s largest lakes (Pend Oreille, Coeur d’Alene, and Priest lakes). The state’s other national forests include the Caribou, Clearwater, Payette, Salmon, Sawtooth, and Targhee.

C

State Parks

Some 22 areas in Idaho are administered by the state as parks and recreational sites. In most of these areas there are facilities for hunting, fishing, water sports, camping, and picnicking. Heyburn State Park, the largest area, covers about 2,230 hectares (5,505 acres) of lake country in northern Idaho. At Bruneau Dunes State Park the tallest sand dunes tower to 140 m (470 ft) and are among the tallest in North America. Register Rock, where pioneers carved in stone their names and the dates of their passage on the Oregon Trail, is located in Massacre Rocks State Park.

The historic Mission of the Sacred Heart, or Cataldo Mission, is a restored Jesuit mission built between 1848 and 1853. In the 1970s it was leased by the Coeur d’Alene tribe to the Idaho department of parks and recreation to operate as a state park for 40 years.

D

Other Places to Visit

Silver City, southwest of Boise, is a well-known ghost town. Its old mine workings, old frame buildings (many of which are summer residences), and nearby cemeteries are among the few remnants of the former mining community. Idaho City, northeast of Boise, was also once a major mining center. Now little more than 300 people live there.

The Grand Canyon of the Snake River, designated a national recreation and wilderness area, is a spectacular sight. Tourists can take a four-day boat trip from Homestead, Oregon, to Lewiston through the rushing waters of the canyon’s main gorge, or enjoy shorter jet boat trips departing from Lewiston.

Among Idaho’s many other natural wonders is Thousand Springs. Located near Buhl, in southern Idaho, it is a group of natural springs that cascade from canyon walls along the Snake River. Shoshone Falls, also on the Snake River, are higher than Niagara Falls and drop 65 m (212 ft) over a horseshoe-shaped rim. On the river directly above Shoshone Falls are Twin Falls, with a 41-m (135-ft) drop. Idaho has hundreds of caves, many of them unexplored. The Shoshone Ice Caves, which are located north of Shoshone Falls, contain remarkable ice formations. Other notable caves include Crystal Ice Cave, near American Falls, and Minetonka Cave, near Paris. Erosion has formed Balanced Rock, southwest of Buhl. Through the ages, wind erosion has worn away the bottom part of the massive rock, which is 12 m (40 ft) high and now rests in a seemingly precarious balance on a base only 1 m (3 ft) wide.

E

Annual Events

The Winter Sports Carnival is held in the resort village of McCall each January. In February, the University of Idaho hosts the Annual Lionel Hampton Jazz Festival, and during March, a major national skiing event, the Harriman Cup, is held at Sun Valley.

Among rodeos is the Snake River Stampede, held in July at Nampa. It is one of the largest rodeos in the western United States. Also held in July are the Diamond Cup hydroplane races on Coeur d’Alene Lake. Late in July or early in August there are performances of religious sun dances by Shoshones at the Fort Hall Reservation. The people of Bonners Ferry celebrate with Kootenai River Days in midsummer.

State fairs include the Western Idaho State Fair, held at Boise in August, and the Eastern Idaho State Fair, held at Blackfoot in September. Another September event is Lumberjack Days, at Orofino. During Lumberjack Days, skilled participants compete in pole-climbing, sawing, chopping, and log-rolling events. The Lewiston Round-Up in September is one of the major rodeos in the Northwest. In late December and again in the summer, Idahoans of Basque descent gather in Boise to hold folk festivals marked by Basque songs and dances. The Basques also retain their traditional game of pelota, a form of jai alai.

VII

GOVERNMENT

Idaho’s constitution was approved by the voters in November 1889, eight months before statehood. Amendments may be proposed by a two-thirds majority in each house of the state legislature or by a constitutional convention. To become law, all amendments must be approved by a majority of the voters.

A

Executive

The state’s chief executive, the governor, is elected for a four-year term. The governor appoints most of the important nonelected state officials. The governor may veto proposed legislation and also specific items in appropriations measures. However, the legislature can override a governor’s veto by a two-thirds majority vote in each house. The other elected officials of the executive branch are the lieutenant governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney general, and superintendent of public instruction. They are also elected for four years.

B

Legislative

The Idaho legislature consists of a 35-member Senate and a 70-member House of Representatives. Members of both houses are elected for two-year terms. The legislature convenes annually on the first Monday on or closest to January 9. Regular sessions of the state legislature last about 90 days. In addition, the governor is authorized to call special sessions of the legislature. The lieutenant governor presides over the Senate when it is in session. The speaker of the house, who is selected at a caucus of the majority party, presides over the House of Representatives.

C

Judicial

The state’s highest court, the Supreme Court, consists of a chief justice and four associate justices. Each is elected for a six-year term. The justice with the shortest remaining term serves as chief justice. Judges of the next lower courts, the district courts, are elected for four-year terms. The supreme court and the district courts hold sessions in a number of Idaho cities during the year. Magistrates are elected for four-year terms. Each county has at least one magistrate judge. Magistrates are appointed by a magistrate commission and stand for ballot approval by the general electorate every four years. An appeals court was established in 1981.

D

Local Government

Each of the state’s 44 counties is governed by a board of three elected commissioners. The board has general supervision over all county affairs. Other elected county officials are the sheriff, assessor, coroner, prosecuting attorney, treasurer, and recorder. Idaho’s cities may have either the city manager or the mayor and council form of local government.

E

National Representation

Idaho elects two senators and two representatives to the Congress of the United States. The state has four electoral votes in presidential elections.

VIII

HISTORY

A

Idaho’s First Inhabitants

Big-game hunters were the earliest inhabitants of present-day Idaho. Excavations at Wilson Butte Cave in south central Idaho uncovered a campsite dating back about 12,000 years with the remains of prehistoric animals and spears made out of flint. Early game hunters led a migratory life, pursuing mammoths, bison, and prehistoric horses.

At the time of the arrival of the first whites, early in the 19th century, seven principal Native American groups inhabited Idaho. To the north lived the Coeur d’Alene, the Pend d’Oreille, and the Kootenai. The Nez Perce inhabited the region between the Blue Mountains in Oregon and the Bitterroot Mountains in northern Idaho. In Idaho they lived principally along the valleys of the Clearwater River and its tributaries and along the lower Salmon River. Native Americans from northern Idaho were seminomadic but had permanent semisubterranean longhouses. In the summer they caught salmon, steelhead, and trout, gathered fruits, roots, and berries, and migrated to Montana to hunt bison, bear, and elk.

Southern Idaho was occupied by the Shoshone and by the less numerous Bannock and Paiute Native Americans. These people may have migrated to Idaho from Nevada or Utah during the 16th century. They generally lived in portable conical dwellings, made of grass or bark mats. They lived in the prairies and ate insects, birds, eggs, fish, rabbit, and prairie dogs.

When the horse was introduced to the Native Americans of Idaho, their lives changed drastically. The horse gave Native Americans greater mobility and allowed them to hunt and trade with native groups from Washington, Montana, and Canada. The Shoshone and the Nez Perce also fought against the Native American peoples of the Great Plains, such as the Blackfoot and the Crow.

B

Explorers and Fur Traders

Idaho was the last of the 50 states to be entered by whites, although European or American wares had reached the area through trade and diseases such as small pox had struck the Nez Perce before white explorers arrived. The American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were the first white men known to have entered the Idaho country. Their expedition, which sought a water route to the Pacific Ocean in 1805, crossed the challenging Bitterroot Mountains in Idaho where they ran out of food (see Lewis and Clark Expedition). During an encounter with the Nez Perce, Clark distributed ointments for eyes, which the Nez Perce found very effective.

Lewis and Clark’s discoveries encouraged fur traders to explore the area. They later found less difficult routes across Idaho to the north and the south of the great central mountain barrier. In 1809 David Thompson, working for the North West Company, a Montréal-based fur-trading company, established Kullyspell House, on Lake Pend Oreille. This was the first trading post in what are now Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. In 1811 Wilson Price Hunt and Donald Mackenzie of the Pacific Fur Company led a party through the Snake River valley in southern Idaho on its way to the company’s headquarters at the mouth of the Columbia River. Much of the route they took across Idaho later formed part of the Oregon Trail, over which thousands of migrants traveled westward in the 1840s and 1850s.

Initially the North West Company, which was merged with the British-owned Hudson’s Bay Company in 1821, carried on fur-trading activities in the Idaho country, with little or no competition. Then in 1825, Missouri businessman General Henry William Ashley developed a trading practice called the “rendez-vous” system. Instead of established trading posts, the system had annual gatherings where American fur trappers, known as mountain men, and Native Americans met and exchanged goods in Idaho country. The rendez-vous system was less costly to operate than trading posts. It remained popular, but was supplemented in the 1830s with two trading posts. In 1834 Nathaniel Wyeth, a businessman from Boston, established Fort Hall in Idaho. In response, the Hudson’s Bay Company built Fort Boise near an annual rendez-vous location near the Snake and Boise rivers. In 1836 Wyeth sold his fort to the Hudson’s Bay Company. By the early 1840s the fur traders had greatly reduced the region’s fur supply. After that, the Hudson’s Bay Company controlled what little trade was left through their two Snake River valley posts, Fort Hall and Fort Boise, which later came to serve primarily as outposts on the Oregon Trail.

C

Missionaries and Early Settlement

In 1831 a delegation of Native Americans from Idaho went to St. Louis to request religious instruction. Although it is unclear if this Native American group was interested in Christianity, or simply the power Christians seemed to hold, missionaries on the East Coast began to show interest in converting the Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest. The most famous missionary in Idaho was Henry H. Spalding, a Presbyterian minister. In 1836 he established the first mission in Idaho, in the Clearwater River valley, a few miles east of present-day Lewiston. Spalding taught farming methods, including irrigation, to the Nez Perce and also gave them religious instruction. He built Idaho’s first gristmill, blacksmith shop, and printing shop, which published several books in the language of the Nez Perce.

In 1842 the first Roman Catholic mission in Idaho was established among the Coeur d’Alene people. The Native Americans and the missionaries built the Cataldo church, the oldest standing building in Idaho. In 1855 Mormons founded a mission at Fort Lemhi, on the Lemhi River in eastern Idaho. However, they abandoned their settlement in 1858 because of conflict with the Native Americans.

Missionaries were not the only whites to arrive in Idaho. An estimated 53,000 emigrants passed through the area during the 1840s and 1850s, moving westward along the Oregon Trail. However, few settled in Idaho, and in fact, the Snake River plain in Idaho was considered one of the most dangerous parts of the Oregon Trail because of the high percentage of Native American attacks in the area.

D

The Idaho Territory

Until 1846 the United States and Britain maintained conflicting claims in the Oregon country, the region that extended from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast and included all of Idaho. In that year the two nations settled their dispute, and the northern boundary of the United States in the Oregon country was set at the 49th parallel. In 1853 the Idaho region was divided between the Washington Territory and the Oregon Territory. When Oregon became a state in 1859, the borders of the Washington Territory were extended to include all of the Idaho region.

Until 1860 most Americans expected that the vast mountain wilderness and arid plains of Idaho would not be settled for years to come. However, a series of gold rushes upset the expectation almost immediately. Late in 1860, gold was found in the Nez Perce country, and subsequently thousands of miners sought their fortunes in the mining camps above the Clearwater and Salmon rivers and in the high mountain basin north of present-day Boise. Within three years, the white population of the Idaho region rose to more than 20,000. The largest Idahoan mining settlements, at Florence and Idaho City, were briefly the largest communities in the Washington Territory. Idaho City had saloons, theaters, an opera house, and other urban comforts. Although the gold rush did not last more than a few years, some of the mining communities provided the basis for permanent settlement in the interior of the Pacific Northwest.

With the discovery of gold in Idaho it became increasingly difficult for administrators in Olympia, the capital of Washington Territory, to govern the inland territory. On March 4, 1863, Idaho was established as a territory, including nearly all of what was later to become Montana and Wyoming. Lewiston was designated the territorial capital, and William H. Wallace was appointed the first territorial governor. However, mountain barriers and vast distances separated many of the mining camps that made up the Idaho Territory. In 1864, therefore, Montana was detached from Idaho to form a separate territory. Idaho’s capital was then moved to Boise. In 1868 the Wyoming Territory was created, and, consequently, Idaho acquired what were to be its permanent boundaries.

E

Relations with Native Americans

In Idaho’s early history, relations with Native Americans were generally peaceful; however, as the white population grew, conflicts developed. In 1853 after the creation of Washington Territory, which included parts of present-day Idaho, Isaac I. Stevens, the new territorial governor, began to negotiate treaties with the Native Americans in order to confine them to reservations. In 1855 the Nez Perce signed a treaty that allowed them to keep their territory, which lay in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. However, when gold was discovered within the Nez Perce homeland, the treaty was renegotiated in 1863, reducing the Nez Perce’s land to one-tenth of its original size. In 1872 the Colville reservation in Washington was created for the Kootenai, Pend d’Oreille, Colville, and Spokane tribes.

Native Americans, who found the transition to life on the reservations difficult, resented the treaties. Aggressive behavior on both sides made matters worse. In 1863 in southeastern Idaho, Colonel Patrick E. Connor and his troops, sent to protect settlers in the region, killed up to 368 Shoshone.

In June 1877 the federal government forced a band of Nez Perce to relocate to Idaho from their fertile homelands in the Wallowa River valley, in northeast Oregon. Fighting erupted when three young Nez Perce warriors killed four settlers who they felt had been unjust to their people. The federal government took this assault as a sign of resistance and pursued the Nez Perce. Led by Chief Joseph, the Native Americans fought off federal forces for a few months. Joseph attempted to lead the tribe to safety across the Montana-Canada border, but in October he surrendered to federal troops to protect his people from additional hardship.

The next year the Bannocks fought several skirmishes against army troops under General Oliver O. Howard, but they became disorganized after their chief, Buffalo Horn, died from wounds inflicted in battle. In 1879 the last of the Sheepeaters, a small band of Shoshone, were pursued by federal forces for allegedly stealing livestock. The Sheepeaters’ War, as the episode was called, brought an end to conflict with Native Americans in Idaho. By 1909 nearly all Native Americans had been settled on reservations, where many of their descendants remain today.

F

Economic Developments in the Late 19th Century

In the 1860s, Californian and Texan ranchers began driving herds of cattle into Idaho, primarily to supply the mining communities. In subsequent decades, Idaho’s excellent grazing lands continued to attract cattle ranchers and sheepherders to the region, especially as good grazing land in other states became increasingly scarce. By the mid-1880s, sheep and cattle raising had spread through much of Idaho. Crop farming developed slowly, as farmers discovered that the dry land of the Snake River valley and the Palouse plains of the Idaho panhandle produced good wheat, oat, and barley crops. Farmers also grew staples for neighboring mining towns.

Idaho’s economy developed considerably as new transportation links tied the state to the rest of the country. When gold was first discovered in Idaho, freight wagons and stagecoaches brought prospectors to the state to seek their fortune. In the 1860s a steamboat service also brought people up the Columbia River from Portland, Oregon, to Idaho. However, railroad lines connecting the state’s mines to major out-of-state markets stimulated Idaho’s economy the most.

The first railroad to Idaho reached Franklin, on the Utah-Idaho border, in 1874. Construction of this line continued north to mines in Butte, Montana, in 1881, the same year that construction began on the Oregon Short Line that linked Idaho with Oregon and Wyoming. By 1884 the Union Pacific Railroad had completed a branch line across southern Idaho and tracks of the Northern Pacific Railway had been laid across the northern part of the state. The Union Pacific line opened up the mining area along Big Wood River, where large silver and lead deposits had been discovered in 1879. In 1884 the Northern Pacific actively promoted a gold rush in the Coeur d’Alene region.

G

Statehood

Idaho was divided by the great central mountain barrier which separated northern Idaho from the rest of the territory. Because of this geographic division, Idaho’s existence as a single unit remained in doubt for some time. Division of the territory seemed imminent in the mid-1880s when a Nevada politician urged the Congress of the United States to attach northern Idaho to Washington. The next step, many believed, would have been to attach the remainder of the state to Nevada. In 1887 both houses of the Congress approved the measure. Only a last-minute plea from Idaho’s territorial governor, Edward A. Stevenson, to President Grover Cleveland prevented the plan from taking effect.

As the economy expanded, Idaho’s population grew, rising from 33,000 in 1880 to 89,000 in 1890 and to 162,000 in 1900. In the 1870s more than 4,000 Chinese lived in Idaho, accounting for one-quarter of the territory’s non-Native American population. Basques from Southern France and northern Spain also came in large numbers. During the 1880s many of Idaho’s settlers came from the South and Southwest. Thereafter, the bulk of the newcomers were from the Midwest, many of them Mormons, who were predominantly Democrats, but the rest were mainly Republicans. These Republicans were probably an important factor in the decision of a Republican Congress, who believed the state would vote Republican, to grant Idaho statehood ahead of more populous territories. On July 3, 1890, Idaho entered the Union as the 43rd state. Republican George L. Shoup was elected the first state governor.

H

Politics and Labor at the End of the 19th Century

During the 1890s, the United States suffered from an economic downturn. Farmers in Idaho saw their produce and crops lose value. Many people working in the silver industry believed that the United States should mint silver as well as gold coins. The Populist Party, which was organized in the 1890s to help farmers fight declining crop prices and rising operational costs, became active in Idaho in 1892. The party campaigned for government ownership of railways and telegraph lines, a graduated income tax, and the free coinage of silver, the unlimited production of silver coins which would stimulate demand for Idaho’s silver mines. In 1896 the Populist/Democrat ticket defeated the Republicans in Idaho, but the party was unable to accomplish its goals. In 1898 the Populists were defeated by Democrats and Free-Silver Republicans. They failed to win any other elections. Nonetheless, the silver issue remained important in Idaho until 1902.

The economic downturn also provoked violent and bitter labor disputes between mine owners and workers. As miners sought higher wages and union representation, some mining companies fired union members, cut wages, and brought in armed guards and strikebreakers. In 1892 a mine near Wallace locked out its workers and hired a large number of strikebreakers. Tension mounted between union workers and the mining companies. Finally guards exchanged shots with union workers. Fighting continued until the workers dynamited an ore mill, at which point mine guards and strikebreakers surrendered. The governor of Idaho declared martial law, sent in federal troops, and arrested some of the strikers.

In an unrelated incident in 1899 armed miners seized a train loaded with explosives and blew up the ore concentrator of Bunker Hill and Sullivan, one of the largest mining firms in Idaho. Governor Frank Steunenberg called in federal troops to reestablish order.

In 1905 Steunenberg, then no longer governor, was killed by an explosive device attached to the front gate of his house. Allegedly, he was murdered because of his role in suppressing the 1899 labor dispute. The confessed assassin, Harry Orchard, was a member of the Western Federation of Miners, a union that had been formed during the labor disputes in the Coeur d’Alene region in 1892. Orchard charged that the federation’s leaders had conspired in the assassination. In 1907 one of the union leaders, William D. “Big Bill” Haywood, was tried in Boise. The trial received worldwide attention. William E. Borah, who served as U.S. senator from Idaho from 1907 to 1940, was an attorney for the prosecution, and famed lawyer Clarence Darrow led the defense. Haywood and, subsequently, two other union officials, were acquitted for lack of corroborating evidence to prove a conspiracy. After the Haywood trial, labor strife was less frequent in Idaho.

I

Economic Development in the 20th Century

One of the major obstacles facing Idaho’s economy at the turn of the century was lack of water for farming. Although early settlers built canals to water the crops, the lack of a widespread irrigation system prevented many farmers from settling in Idaho. The Carey Land Act of 1894 was designed to help settle arid and semiarid land in the West. It authorized Western states to sell federal land to settlers on the condition that at least part of each tract sold be cultivated and that the state assist in irrigating the tract. The act was particularly effective in Idaho and resulted in the irrigation of vast fertile but arid lands in the Snake River valley, especially after 1900.

Major irrigation projects were also undertaken in Idaho under the terms of the Reclamation Act of 1902, which made federal funds available for irrigation. The Minidoka Project consisted of a storage system located in Jackson, Wyoming, and a series of dams in Idaho. The Boise Project built the Arrowrock Dam on the Boise River in 1915. When completed, it was the highest dam in the world. The new dams provided water for field irrigation. The Minidoka, Boise, and later projects also gave Idaho ample water for expanding industrial and domestic uses. Irrigation helped develop three of Idaho’s important crops: potatoes, peas, and sugarbeets.

At the turn of the century, agriculture was the leading economic activity in Idaho, and it continued to hold that position until the late 20th century. During these decades, agricultural production in the state expanded greatly as farm acreage, irrigated land, and crop yields increased. The expansion of the state’s agricultural base encouraged a number of related activities, especially food processing.

Large-scale commercial lumbering developed in Idaho shortly after 1900. Activity was centered in the northern part of the state, where there were magnificent stands of white pine. By the 1920s, lumbering was Idaho’s second most important economic activity. However, the industry’s growth was checked by several factors. First, a disastrous forest fire in northern Idaho and adjoining Montana in 1910 scorched one-sixth of Idaho’s northern forests. Second, the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 permitted companies on the coast to send their lumber to East Coast cities by ship, while companies in Idaho had to rely on relatively more expensive rail transportation.

J

World War I to the Great Depression

During World War I (1914-1918), the people of Idaho enrolled in the military at a higher ratio than the national average. Farmers also contributed by increasing production to feed the troops. After the armistice, however, Idaho, along with the rest of the United States, experienced an economic depression. Agricultural prices fell dramatically and forced a large number of farmers into bankruptcy. Many left the state to seek better opportunities elsewhere. Prices recovered slowly during the 1920s.

During the economic hard times of the 1930s known as the Great Depression, Idaho’s economy once again suffered. Farmers were particularly hard hit, both by drought and dropping prices for their produce. However, the state was able to absorb many people from Oklahoma, Nebraska, and Kansas, who migrated to Idaho to escape serious droughts in those states. These new settlers made up for the population lost earlier during the 1920s.

When Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected president of the United States in 1932, he initiated a series of domestic programs, called the New Deal, to help the nation recover from the depression. This plan brought many benefits to Idaho. The Civilian Conservation Corps, a program developed to preserve natural resources and provide employment for young men, worked to eliminate a fungus that was attacking the state’s forests. A number of agricultural programs helped commercial and private farmers and promoted soil conservation. The Rural Electrification Program provided electricity to isolated areas. The Public Works Administration allotted money to the Forest Service to build roads and improve the state’s irrigation system. These programs significantly improved Idaho’s economic situation.

K

World War II

Idaho’s economy improved with the onset of World War II (1939-1945). Timber from Idaho was used for a variety of military purposes, ranging from building boxes and crates to military barracks. Silver and lead from Idaho were used in weapons. Farmers again provided large quantities of food staples. As in other parts of the country, labor shortages and farm prosperity encouraged farmers to invest in mechanized equipment and to enlarge their farms during World War II.

Idaho was the site of 18 German and Italian prisoner-of-war camps. In 1942 after Japan bombed U.S. military forces in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Idaho also became the site of a relocation center for Japanese Americans who lived on the Pacific Coast. They were relocated by presidential order because they were considered to be security risks. About 10,000 Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans from Washington and Oregon were forced to abandon their possessions and move to the Minidoka Relocation Center in Idaho. The Japanese established a system of self-government and a community cooperative that offered the internees a number of services, including shoe and watch repair, general stores and beauty parlors, a newspaper, and a flower shop. Farmers in the region recruited the Japanese to work in their fields. Ironically, the Japanese who already lived in Idaho were not forced to move to relocation centers. In 1988 Congress allotted $20,000 in compensation to each Japanese American who was sent to an internment camp during World War II.

L

Post-World War II to Present

Heavy wartime demands for lumber and the enormous amount of construction throughout the nation after the war led to a boom in the Idaho lumber industry. Starting in the middle 1950s the industry diversified and began producing a variety of wood products.

Beginning in the early 1970s, concern for the environment became a political issue. Under the leadership of Democratic Governor Cecil Andrus, elected in 1970, legislation providing for improved conservation of natural resources, rivers, and streams was enacted. Throughout the 1970s many regions in Idaho were designated as national forest areas or wilderness areas including the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area, the Sawtooth Wilderness Area, and the Seven Devils mountains.

With the state’s great expanse of forests, scenic mountain ranges, and spectacular river canyons, tourism became an important source of income in Idaho. Tourism became vital to the state’s economy with the decline in important mining and timber industries. When the Bunker Hill Mine and Smelter, one of Idaho’s largest employers, ceased operations in Kellogg in 1981, it left 2,000 workers without jobs. Just five years earlier Kellogg had been a regional hub to the Silver Valley area, in which about one-quarter of the population worked in the mining industry. Although the silver market improved, new technologies permanently eliminated thousands of jobs. Kellogg, like many other mining and lumber towns across the state, is trying to develop its tourist industry. Tourism supplemented agricultural and industrial diversification as a factor in the state’s continued economic growth.

In 1992 Idaho was the center of a national controversy when Randy Weaver, a white separatist living in the state, failed to appear in court for a federal weapons trial. Federal officials surrounded his home on Ruby Ridge, where he had taken refuge. The 11-day standoff ended when shots were exchanged, leaving a federal officer and Weaver’s wife, Vicki Weaver, and son dead. The case raised questions about federal policy on the use of deadly force. The policy was eventually changed to emphasize that federal agents must use nonlethal methods to apprehend fugitives whenever possible. In the aftermath of the incident, Randy Weaver and his friend Kevin Harris were tried and found innocent in the death of the officer, and the Weaver family won a $3.1 million settlement against the federal government for the assault. In May 1998 a federal judge dismissed charges of involuntary manslaughter against the federal agent who shot Vicki Weaver, ruling that the officer had acted within the scope of his duties.

The history section of this article was contributed by Carlos A. Schwantes. The remainder of the article was contributed by Harley Johansen.