I | INTRODUCTION |
Ghana, nation in West Africa, a former British colony
known as the Gold Coast until 1957. That year Ghana became the first state in
sub-Saharan Africa to gain political independence from European colonial rule.
Drawing on tradition, the new state took its name from that of the medieval
empire of Ghana, on the upper Niger River, several hundred miles to the
northwest of modern Ghana. Following independence, Ghana assumed the leadership
role in the African continent’s struggle for national liberation.
The people of this densely populated country
belong to more than 100 different ethnic groups, but Ghana has largely been
spared the ethnic conflict that has torn apart many other African countries. The
capital city of Accra is the largest city in the country. English is the
official language of the country, but most Ghanaians also speak at least one
African language.
Ghana has one of the strongest economies in
West Africa, yet the country’s economic base continues to be agriculture and the
people remain poor. Gold mining, the production of cacao (used to make
chocolate), and tourism are the main sources of revenue. Ghana was known
as a source of gold hundreds of years ago. European explorers who arrived in
search of gold in the 1400s and 1500s first named the region the Gold Coast.
A series of military coups and severe
economic problems plagued Ghana from the late 1960s into the 1980s. However,
Ghana reemerged in the 1990s as a democracy and a leading player in African
affairs. In 1997 Kofi Annan, a diplomat from Ghana, became secretary-general of
the United Nations.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
Ghana has a total area of 238,500 sq km
(92,090 sq mi). The distance from south to north is about 670 km (420 mi) and
from west to east is about 560 km (350 mi). The country is bordered by Côte
d'Ivoire to the west, Togo to the east, and Burkina Faso to the north. The Gulf
of Guinea of the Atlantic Ocean washes Ghana’s southern shore.
Ghana is generally characterized by flat
plains and gently rolling hills. Forests cover 23 percent (2005) of the
country’s area, while 28 percent (2003) of its area is farmed. The country is
divided into five distinct geographical regions. Coastal plains stretch across
the southern portion of the country, featuring low sandy beaches interspersed
with saltwater lagoons. A forested plateau region consisting of the Ashanti
uplands and the Kwahu Plateau is located inland, in southwest and south central
Ghana. The hilly Akwapim-Togo Ranges run north to south along the country’s
eastern border. The Volta Basin takes up most of central Ghana. Finally, high
plains characterize the northern third of the country. The country’s highest
point is Mount Afadjoto, at 885 m (2,904 ft), in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges.
A | Rivers and Lakes |
The country’s main river is the Volta,
which is formed in the center of the country by the confluence of the Black
Volta and the White Volta. The Volta enters the Gulf of Guinea at Ada in
southeastern Ghana. The Akosombo Dam on the Volta formed Lake Volta upon its
completion in 1965. The lake covers an area of 8,482 sq km (3,275 sq mi), making
it one of the world’s largest artificial lakes.
The two major tributaries of the Volta
are the Oti and Afram rivers. Together, the Volta and its tributaries drain the
Volta Basin. Ghana’s other significant river systems are the Densu, Birim, Pra,
and Ankobra. All empty into the Gulf of Guinea. Ghana’s rivers are navigable
only by small crafts, with the exception of the Volta. Located in the Ashanti
uplands, Lake Bosumtwi is Ghana’s only natural lake.
B | Plant and Animal Life |
Southern Ghana contains evergreen and
semideciduous forests, consisting of tall silk cottons, kolas, and valuable West
African hardwoods such as mahogany, odum, and ebony. The northern two-thirds of
the country is covered by savanna—tropical grassland with a scattering of shrubs
and trees. Ghana’s savanna features shea trees, acacias, and baobabs. The oil
palm is found throughout the south and the Ashanti uplands, and the lagoons of
the coast contain mangroves.
Once plentiful throughout the savanna,
large mammals such as elephants and lions are now rare and largely confined to
nature reserves. Mole National Park in northwest Ghana has become a refuge for
many of these mammals. The forest regions are habitats for monkeys,
snakes, and antelopes, and some of the major rivers contain crocodiles. There
are more than 725 bird species in Ghana.
C | Natural Resources |
A largely agricultural nation, Ghana’s
most important natural resource is the soil. Of the country’s total land area,
28 percent (2003) is arable or under permanent crops, and 23 percent (2005) is
forested. Gold is Ghana’s principal mineral resource; bauxite, manganese, and
diamonds are also important. The Akosombo Dam on the Volta River provides
hydroelectricity for Ghana and several neighboring countries.
D | Climate |
Ghana’s tropical climate features distinct
wet and dry seasons, with regional variations. The north experiences one long
rainy season from March until November. The dry season begins when the
harmattan, a hot, dust-laden wind from the Sahara, blows from the north. The
harmattan is most intense in December and January. The south experiences two
rainy seasons: one from April to July, and then—after intermittent rains in
August—another from September to November.
In Accra, average daily temperatures
range from 23° to 31°C (73° to 87°F) in January and from 23° to 27°C (73° to
81°F) in July. Slightly hotter average temperatures are experienced in the
north. Rainfall varies widely. The northern portion of the country is drier than
the south, with the exception of the coastal area around Accra. The mean annual
rainfall ranges from 750 to 1,000 mm (30 to 40 in) at Accra, from 1,470 to 1,830
mm (60 to 70 in) on the Kwahu Plateau, from 1,780 to 2,080 mm (70 to 80 in) on
the southwest coast, and from 1,100 to 1,200 mm (40 to 50 in) in the northern
high plains. The country experiences occasional droughts.
E | Environmental Issues |
In the late 19th century, hardwood forests
covered the southern half of Ghana. Considerable portions of these
once-extensive forests have been destroyed, and today about 23 percent of the
country remains forested. Not all of these forests are commercially viable,
however.
Ghana is the third largest producer of
cacao in the world. Large tracts of forest have been cleared for cacao crops,
which thrive in the rich soil of the rain forest. In times of depressed cacao
prices, Ghana has significantly increased exports of timber to generate needed
revenue.
In 1988 Ghana initiated a conservation
plan called the Forest Resource Management Project. In 1989 Ghana restricted the
export of 18 tree species, and in 1994 the country banned the export of raw
logs. About 4.8 percent (1997) of the country’s land is officially protected,
but illegal logging threatens Ghana’s remaining forests.
Deforestation, overgrazing, and periodic
drought have led to desertification and soil erosion. Ghana’s wildlife
populations, depleted by habitat loss, are further threatened by poaching.
Ghana has ratified international
agreements protecting biodiversity, endangered species, tropical forests,
wetlands, and the ozone layer.
III | THE PEOPLE OF GHANA |
The population of Ghana in 2008 was
23,382,848, giving the country a population density of 101 persons per sq km
(262 per sq mi). Life expectancy at birth is estimated at 59.5 years, one of the
highest rates in sub-Saharan Africa. With a birth rate of 29.20 per 1,000 and a
death rate of 9.40 per 1,000, the country’s population growth rate is 1.93
percent (2008 estimate). While this current rate of increase is moderate
compared with other West African nations, Ghana’s population almost tripled from
1960 to 2000. The rapid rise in the population reflects the advances made in the
provision of medical and sanitation services in the country and has resulted in
a youthful population. Family planning programs have helped reduce the nation’s
birth rate.
Despite migrations to Ghana’s urban
centers, 54 percent (1998) of the population resides in rural communities. Most
rural Ghanaians are farmers, herders, or fishers. In the cities, most people
work in the service sector or in manufacturing. The country’s major cities are
Accra, the national capital; Kumasi, the principal city of the Ashanti region;
Tema, an industrial city and Ghana’s major port; Sekondi and Takoradi, the
coastal twin cities; Tamale, a northern trade center; and the college town of
Cape Coast.
A | Ethnic Groups and Languages |
Over 100 linguistic and ethnic groups
have been identified in Ghana, and these groups have maintained a sense of
ethnic identity. However, the population is classified into two major linguistic
families: the Kwa and the Gur.
The Kwa speakers, traditionally
associated with the area south of the Volta, make up about 75 percent of the
population. The major Kwa linguistic subgroup is the Akan speakers, who are
further subdivided into the Ashanti, Bono, Fante, Akuapem, Akyem, and Kwahu,
among others. The Ashanti and Akuapem peoples speak similar Akan dialects,
collectively known as Twi. Other Kwa linguistic groups include the Nzima, Ga,
Gonja, Adangbe, and Ewe.
Members of the Gur linguistic family
live mainly in the northern regions of the country. The principal Gur language
is Dagbane, and the major Gur ethnic groups are the Dagomba and Mamprusi
peoples. Due to the similarities in the various dialects and to the increasing
mobility of the population, a typical Ghanaian understands at least one of five
major languages—Akan, Nzima, Dagbane, Ga, or Ewe—as well as English, which is
the official language of the country.
B | Religion |
Although no exact figures on religious
distribution have been provided since the 1960 census, experts believe that
about 41 percent of the population adheres to Protestantism, Roman Catholicism,
or independent Christian faiths; 20 percent to Islam; and most of the remainder
to traditional African religions. Most Protestants belong to Methodist,
Presbyterian, or Anglican denominations. A growing number of Christians belong
to independent African churches that are usually organized as spiritual or
Pentecostal churches. Most Ghanaian Muslims are orthodox Sunnis, and a small
percentage are members of the Ahmadiyya sect. The main characteristics of
traditional religion in Ghana include expressed belief in the power of a Supreme
Being, family ancestors, lesser gods, witches, and a host of spiritual beings.
C | Education |
Christian missionaries introduced
Western-style education to Ghana in the 18th century. Although some schools are
still affiliated with religious groups, the state is now the main provider of
education. In 1996, 20 percent of the national budget was spent on education.
Primary education is free and compulsory.
In 2002–2003, 79 percent of primary
school-aged children attended primary school. Attendance at the secondary school
level was 39 percent and 3 percent at the university level. A greater percentage
of boys attended school than girls, the gap widening above the primary school
level. However, the disparity in attendance by gender was not due to any state
policy. Ghana’s educational system is open to all. The adult literacy rate in
2005 was recorded at 76.9 percent, with male literacy at 84.3 and female
literacy at 69.8.
The University of Ghana, at Legon (near
Accra), was Ghana’s first university, established in 1948. There are three other
universities in the country, located at Cape Coast, Kumasi, and Tamale, and
numerous teacher training colleges and vocational institutions.
D | Way of Life |
Ghana has long been exposed to outside
influences on its society and culture. To some extent, Islam shapes the society
of the north while Christianity is strong in the south. Despite the influence of
these world religions, however, much of Ghanaian society continues to be
traditional. Most people recognize the place of traditional practices. For
example, they grant local chiefs customary rights to preside over their
communities, and the young respect parents and their elders. An extended
family’s elders arbitrate the inheritance of the family’s land, possessions, and
social status.
Polygamy (the practice of having
more than one wife) is legal, but as the literacy rate has risen, Ghanaians have
increasingly chosen monogamy (the practice of having only one wife) as
the preferred marital relation. A number of women’s organizations and lobby
groups were established in the 1990s. Women are not prohibited from holding
public offices nor are they paid less for equal work done. Most Ghanaians
throughout the country wear Western attire. Traditional clothing, which is worn
usually at local ceremonies and dances, varies among ethnic groups, often taking
the form of smocks for men and wraparound dresses for women.
IV | CULTURE |
Ghana’s culture is as diverse as its
linguistic and geographical regions. Weaving and carving are important
traditional art forms. Music and dance are performed at communal functions and
ceremonies such as funerals and marriages.
A | Literature |
Oral literature, in the form of story
telling, has traditionally been the most popular indigenous way of transmitting
societal values. In village gathering places, stories of the spider Ananse were
told both to entertain and educate. In the 1950s and 1960s, many of these
stories were written down to serve as reading material for school children.
Commonly recurring themes in modern Ghanaian literature have been opposition to
colonial rule, political corruption, and the clash between tradition and
modernization in Ghana.
Some of the best known Ghanaian writers
in the English language are Efua Sutherland, a colonial-era female playwright;
Ama Ata Aidoo, a writer whose plays, novels, and poetry examine the traditional
roles assigned to African women; Ayi Kwei Armah, an author of insightful
critiques of contemporary political conditions and historical fiction; and Kofi
Awoonor, a writer whose poems and novels dissect the interaction of traditional
and Western ideas in Africa.
B | Art and Architecture |
Ghana’s visual art forms, including gold
jewelry, woodcarvings, and weaving, were associated traditionally with the royal
courts of different ethnic groups. Although the works of artisans continue to
serve their traditional functions, they are now also created for the tourist
industry. Gold, mined for centuries in Ghana, is worked into weighty pieces of
jewelry that traditionally only adorned the Akan king and nobility.
The Ashanti people are known for their
carved wooden stools, which customarily served domestic and sacred roles. The
Golden Stool, the symbol of the Ashanti nation, is the most sacred stool of all.
In the second half of the 20th century, the Ga people developed a tradition of
building carved and brightly decorated coffins, shaped like animals or objects
that celebrate the deceased. Ghanaian weavers produce many different styles of
cloth, but the most well-known fabric produced in Ghana is Kente cloth. This
distinctive style was traditionally made by weavers of the Ashanti court, using
European silk acquired through trans-Saharan and, later, coastal trade.
There are two main types of indigenous
Ghanaian building styles. Traditional round huts with grass roofing are found in
the northern regions. In the south, several adjoining buildings surround a
communal compound in the middle of an enclosure. In recent years, however,
single-family structures have become more popular, especially in the urban
centers.
C | Music and Dance |
Traditional forms of ceremonial music,
accompanied by dancing, continue to be performed in Ghana. The country is well
known for its traditional talking drums, which mimic the tonal patterns of
spoken language. The most popular Ghanaian music is the highly danceable style
called highlife. Highlife is performed at dances by bands that feature either
trumpets and saxophones or several electric guitars and a set of percussion
instruments. The most famous highlife musician was the late E. T. Mensah, who
was often referred to as “King of Highlife.” A newer style of popular Ghanaian
dance music called hiplife combines the traditional African folklore and rhythms
of highlife with elements of hip-hop. Musician Reggie Rockstone is often called
the father of this genre.
D | Theater and Film |
Ghana’s oldest form of theater is the
Concert Party, in which a traveling minstrel troupe visits villages and performs
to music. The Ghana Dance Ensemble and the University of Ghana produce and
perform local plays. Various local artists and performing groups make film and
television appearances. Ghana’s modest film industry features the work of
directors Kwaw Ansah and King Ampaw.
E | Libraries and Museums |
The Accra Central Library (1950) is
Ghana’s main library. The Ghana National Archives (1946), located in Accra,
holds the largest collection of government papers and has branch offices in
regional capitals. The National Museum in Accra (1957) holds historical and
anthropological artifacts from around the country.
V | ECONOMY |
Before the arrival of European colonists in
the 1400s, farming, herding, and fishing were the main indigenous Ghanaian
economic activities, with smaller numbers of people mining for gold. With the
establishment of complete colonial control in the late 1800s, the territory’s
economy was drawn fully into the world capitalist system, and gold was exported
in large quantities to Europe. Ghanaian farmers produced cash crops such as
cacao for the export market. European merchants, however, dominated the export
and import economy.
Upon independence in 1957, the state assumed
greater involvement in the national economy. From the late 1960s through the
1970s, Ghana experienced severe economic decline as a result of political
instability. By the mid-1980s, however, economic recovery programs were underway
to encourage and expand private sector investments. Both the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (World Bank) supported the reform programs. In the mid-1980s the
government promoted industries using local raw materials and private investment
in food production. From 2006 to 2006, Ghana’s economy grew an average of 6.2
percent each year.
Ghana reported a gross domestic product
(GDP) of $13 billion, or $560.90 per capita, in 2006. Of the total GDP, 37.2
percent was from the service sector, 37.4 percent from agriculture, and 25.4
percent from industrial productions. GDP is a measure of the value of all goods
and services produced by a country.
The state has been responsible for the
provision of infrastructure installations and facilities since colonial times.
Despite efforts to increase privatization in the mid-1980s, the government funds
almost all road construction and installation of new power and telephone
lines.
A | Labor |
Ghana’s labor force in 2006 totaled 10.3
million people. Of these, 55 percent were involved in agriculture, 31 percent in
services, and 14 percent in industry. Despite an expanding private sector, the
state continues to be the largest employer. Almost all schoolteachers, medical
service providers, and administrative personnel are public employees. Ghanaian
workers have a long tradition of organizing into trade unions. The Ghana Trade
Union Congress is an independent umbrella organization that represents workers’
interests. A 20 percent unemployment rate was estimated for 1997.
B | Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing |
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing form the
traditional backbone of Ghana’s economy. Cattle are raised in the dry savanna
regions of the north and in the plains region around Accra. Bananas, plantains,
rice, corn, and cassava are produced as food crops in the southern half of the
country. In the drier north, the major crops are yams, sorghum, and millet. The
wet forest zones allow the cultivation of cash crops such as cacao, coffee, and
palms and the harvesting of tropical timber. Freshwater fish are available in
the rivers and Lake Volta, but the Atlantic Ocean provides the bulk of the
nation’s fish supply.
C | Mining |
Ghana is known historically for its gold
mines, and the country is one of the world’s top gold producers. Ghana mined
60,000 kg (132,280 lb) of gold in 2004. The Ashanti Goldfields Corporation
manages the richest deposit at Obuasi in the Ashanti uplands. Other mineral
exports from Ghana include manganese, diamonds, and bauxite.
D | Manufacturing |
Locally produced goods include textiles,
clothing, timber products, food, beverages, processed fish, and rubber products.
In 2006 the manufacturing sector accounted for 8.50 percent of GDP. The
industrial city of Tema is home to an aluminum smelter, an iron and steel plant,
and a petroleum refinery.
E | Services and Tourism |
The service sector accounted for 37.2
percent of GDP in 2006. Wholesaling and retailing of food items at local open
markets as well as sales of manufactured goods at shops characterize Ghana’s
domestic trade.
Tourism is one of the country’s expanding
service activities. The most important tourist destinations are the colonial
fortresses at Cape Coast and Elmina, which were once major transshipment points
for tens of thousands of slaves on their way to the New World. Tourists are also
attracted by the beaches along the Gulf of Guinea and the animal life in Ghana’s
national parks. Tourist arrivals increased from 146,000 in 1990 to 442,000 in
2006. In 2006 $345 million was generated from tourism. Most visitors to Ghana
come from the United States and Europe.
F | Energy |
More than 90 percent of Ghanaian households
burn wood or charcoal for cooking, but gas and electrical sources of energy are
also available. Power generated by the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River is the
country’s main source of electricity. The Akosombo Dam was completed in 1965,
and a second hydroelectric dam was later constructed downstream, at Kpong. In
2003 Ghana generated 5.4 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity, virtually all in
hydroelectric plants.
Until the mid-1990s Ghana was a regular
exporter of electricity, but low water levels in the Volta have periodically
caused power shortages in the country. The country is investigating the use of
thermal energy to augment its electricity generation. Petroleum is imported to
power automobiles and generators.
G | Transportation |
Ghana is served by 977 km (607 mi) of rail
lines, which are limited to the southern sector of the country, essentially
connecting Sekondi, Accra, and Kumasi. The national rail line has not expanded
since its construction in the early 20th century, with the exception of the
short Accra-Tema link built in the 1960s. Logs, timber products, and minerals
from the southern regions are transported to the deep-water harbors at Tema and
Takoradi for export.
River transportation on the Volta north of
the Akosombo Dam is possible, but the most accessible means of domestic travel
is by road. There are 47,787 km (29,693 mi) of roads in the country, only 18
percent of which are paved. Most Ghanaians travel by bus, or another form of
private mass transportation. The Kotoka International Airport is located at
Accra, but Ghana Airways and other private airlines serve local airports at
Kumasi, Tamale, Sunyani, and Takoradi.
H | Communications |
The government runs the country’s two major
newspapers, the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times, both
published in Accra. Since 1992 a number of independent and party-affiliated
newspapers have been established. The government-owned Ghana Broadcasting
Corporation offers radio and television programs in English and several local
languages. There are also several private FM stations. The most critical concern
of news providers is the issue of press freedom, which was curtailed
occasionally from the 1960s to the 1980s. The National Media Commission was
established in 1993 as an independent watchdog organization to ensure that the
government does not control or interfere with any media provider, private or
state-owned. Today, the media in Ghana operate without major restrictions.
Ghana’s telecommunications system is
poorly developed—in 2005 there were only 14.5 telephone lines per 1,000 people.
Consequently, mobile telephone usage is becoming increasingly popular. Access to
the Internet is available but not widespread.
I | Foreign Trade |
In 2000 Ghana’s total exports were valued
at $1.67 billion, and its total imports at $2.93 billion. The country’s chief
export is gold; other major exports include cacao, lumber, and electricity.
Petroleum, consumer goods, and machinery and transport equipment are among the
main imports. Ghana’s major trade partners, in order of importance, are the
United Kingdom, the United States, Nigeria, The Netherlands, and Germany. Ghana
is a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
J | Currency and Banking |
The Bank of Ghana, founded in 1957, is the
country’s central bank and issues the national currency. The Ghanaian unit of
currency is the new cedi, divided into 100 pesewas (1 new cedis
equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The state-owned Ghana Commercial Bank has branches
throughout the country, and there are also several private banks. The Ghana
Stock Exchange was established in 1990.
VI | GOVERNMENT |
According to the nation’s constitution,
adopted in 1992, Ghana is a multiparty democracy, and all citizens aged 18 and
older are entitled to vote.
A | Executive |
A president, selected by direct popular
election to a four-year term, is head of state and commander in chief of the
Ghana armed forces. According to the constitution, the president must be a
Ghanaian by birth, must be at least 40 years of age before taking office, and
can serve no more than two terms in office. The president appoints a vice
president and a Council of Ministers, a cabinet body whose members have
different portfolios, or responsibilities, for advising the president on
specific national and international issues. A Council of State acts as another
advisory body; each of the 10 administrative regions of the country elects a
council member, and the president appoints the remaining 15 members.
B | Legislature |
Ghana’s lawmaking body is the
unicameral (single house) Parliament. The Parliament’s 230 members are
directly elected to four-year terms, with no term limits. Any Ghanaian aged 21
years or older who does not have the privilege of dual citizenship and who
possesses a taxpaying history can run for Parliament.
C | Judiciary |
Ghana’s legal codes are based on
Britain’s. The principal judicial body is the Supreme Court, which makes
judgments on constitutional, criminal, and civil cases. Below the Supreme Court
are the Court of Appeals and Regional High Courts. At the lower tier are the
Circuit Courts, Community Tribunals, and Courts of the Houses of Chiefs. All
judges are appointed by the president and approved by Parliament. A Judicial
Council monitors the performance of the judicial system, and the Ghana Bar
Association represents the interests of Ghanaian lawyers.
D | Local Government |
The country is divided into ten
administrative regions: Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra,
Northern, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, and Western. Each region is led by a
regional executive, who is appointed by the president. Below the regional level
are district assemblies. Some district assembly members are appointed by the
central government, but the majority are democratically elected.
E | Political Parties |
The dominant political party in Ghana was
the National Democratic Congress (NDC) until the opposition New Patriotic Party
(NPP) won the December 2000 legislative and presidential elections. Also
represented in Parliament are the People’s National Convention (PNC) party and
the Convention People’s Party (CPP). Other parties include the National
Convention Party (NCP) and the National Reform Party (NRP), which split off from
the NDC in 1999.
F | Defense |
The Ghana armed forces—including army,
navy, and air force—totaled 7,000 personnel in 2004. With a total of 5,000 men
and women, the army is the largest of the defense forces. Military service is
voluntary. Ghana’s armed forces personnel have taken part in international
peacekeeping activities in West Africa and around the world. Police force and
civil defense units keep the peace at home.
G | International Organizations |
Ghana has held membership in the United
Nations (UN) and the Commonwealth of Nations since independence in 1957. Ghana
is also a founding member of the African Union (AU) and the Economic Community
of West African States (ECOWAS).
VII | HISTORY |
Archaeological evidence shows that human
habitation in what is now Ghana dates back to 1500 bc. However, there is no evidence
indicating that these early inhabitants were the ancestors of the current
peoples of the country. From oral traditions historians have learned that the
ancestors of many of Ghana's ethnic groups entered their present territories by
the 10th century ad. For hundreds
of years thereafter, upheaval caused by the rise and fall of powerful kingdoms
on the upper Niger River contributed to population migrations into northern
Ghana.
The first of these states was the Kingdom
of Ghana, which emerged as early as 500 ad, expanded greatly by the 9th century,
and collapsed in the 11th century. The Kingdom of Ghana was located in what is
now southeastern Mauritania and southwestern Mali. (The only relationship
between this ancient kingdom and the modern nation of Ghana is a shared name.
The former Gold Coast was renamed Ghana in 1957 to symbolize its historic place
as the first black African nation to gain political independence from European
colonial rule.)
The Kingdom of Ghana was succeeded by the
Mali Empire and then Songhai. These later states developed commercial links with
the people of what is now Ghana. For example, the ancient town of Begho, located
on the margin between the forests of the south and the savanna of the north,
emerged in the 15th century as an important commercial center. Here, savanna and
Saharan goods such as cloth and metal wares were exchanged for gold and kola
nuts from the south. Although no part of present-day Ghana was ever dominated by
these empires to the northwest, Muslim traders came to influence the affairs of
northern peoples such as the Gonja and Dagomba. Most significant was their
introduction of Islam.
A | Early States and Kingdoms in Ghana |
The ancestors of today’s Akan speakers
settled in the forest region of central Ghana by the 13th century and became
involved in the prosperous trade with the north by the 15th century. According
to oral traditions, the Ga-speaking people of the coastal plains and the Ewes of
the Volta region migrated to Ghana from the east around the 13th century.
By the second half of the 15th century
when the first Europeans arrived in the area, the ancestors of most of today’s
ethnic groups were already established in the present territories. In this
period, the various groups began organizing into states. Over the years, trade
contacts with the Islamic states of the north and, later, with the Europeans on
the coast contributed to the rise and fall of these local states. The Ga people
of the coastal plains organized into an effective political unit in
approximately 1500. Islamic trade networks stimulated the development of Akan
states, and the Akan-speaking Denkyira people of the southwest rose to become a
dominant power by the 1650s. In the northern regions of the country, the Gonja,
Dagomba, and Mamprusi contested for political power in the 1620s. However, it
was the Ashanti Kingdom, located in south central Ghana, that was the most
influential.
The Ashanti people, members of the
Twi-speaking branch of the Akan, settled the upland region near Lake Bosumtwi by
the mid-17th century. Under a series of military leaders, they expanded and
gathered into five major political units. Around 1700 an Ashanti confederacy,
under the leadership of Osei Tutu of Kumasi, conquered the Denkyira state. Osei
Tutu was declared the first asantehene, the king of a united Ashanti
nation. Under his leadership and that of his immediate successors, the new
nation expanded rapidly into an empire.
Political relations in the Ashanti
confederacy were defined, preserved, and regulated by an oral constitution. The
asantehene held power as commander in chief of the Ashanti armies. He had the
authority to hear citizens' appeals, and all major chiefs of the Ashanti nation
swore an oath of allegiance to him. Rulers of the confederate states, however,
were allowed many privileges, including control over the inheritance of land and
the right to preside over cases brought before them. Ashanti expansion toward
the coast began in the first decade of the 19th century. By 1820 Ashanti held
some degree of military and political influence over all of its neighbors.
B | European Influence and the Slave Trade |
The Portuguese were the first Europeans
to arrive in what is now Ghana, landing on the shores in 1471. Aware that the
source of the rich trans-Saharan gold trade was inland, the Portuguese named the
region the Gold Coast. At a coastal village that they named Elmina
(Portuguese for “the mine”), they established a commercial mecca, trading
firearms and slaves from other parts of Africa for gold dust. Competition with
Portugal’s gold trade monopoly soon came from Spanish, Italian, and British
traders, among others. To protect their commercial interests, the Portuguese
constructed several fortresses. Saint George’s Castle, the most impressive of
the Portuguese strongholds, was begun in 1482 at Elmina.
Competition among European merchants on
the Gold Coast intensified in the 17th century. In 1637 the Dutch invaded and
took control of the Portuguese fortress at Elmina. Farther west, the Dutch
seized another Portuguese castle at Axim in 1642. At Cape Coast, the British
captured a Dutch stronghold in 1665. Ultimately, the British, Danish, and Dutch
emerged as the dominant European powers on the coast. The aggressiveness with
which European merchants competed on the coast was not due solely to a
profitable gold trade. By the 18th century the Atlantic slave trade, supplying
African slaves to European plantation colonies in North America, South America,
and the Caribbean, had become a vast enterprise. The slave trade subsequently
came to dominate commercial activities in the Gold Coast, as more than 40
European slave-trading fortresses dotted the coast.
The exact number of people taken as
slaves from the Gold Coast cannot be estimated accurately. The majority of
individuals who were sold into slavery were prisoners from local wars, but
others were the victims of systematic slave raids. Also, many local people were
enslaved as punishment for acts classified as crimes, ranging from challenging
political traditions to infringements of religious customs. In exchange for
slaves, local rulers and traders typically received guns and gunpowder.
As a result of the slave trade, powerful
states such as Ashanti were able to acquire enough weapons to sustain their
dominance. Occasionally, however, coastal Fante states formed alliances to
resist Ashanti threats. At times, European powers—the British in particular—were
drawn into these local conflicts. Historians agree that the Atlantic slave trade
was the cause of many wars in the region.
Britain abolished slave trading in 1807;
other European nations followed suit, and the trade dwindled in the mid-19th
century. Europe’s ongoing Industrial Revolution led European entrepreneurs to
turn their attention to Africa’s wealth of critical raw materials—such as the
Gold Coast’s plentiful palm oil, timber, and rubber—and its potential for
providing new markets for manufactured goods.
C | The British-Ashanti Wars |
The majority of the Gold Coast’s
fortresses were under British control by the early 19th century. Seeking a
peaceful environment in which to conduct trade for raw materials, Britain viewed
Ashanti efforts to assert dominance as a threat to Britain’s commercial
interests and began to intervene in local conflicts. The Ashanti, on the other
hand, saw British interference in its conquered territories as infringement on
its sovereignty and fought back.
During a confrontation in 1824, the
Ashanti army routed a British force and killed its commander, Charles MacCarthy,
the colonial governor of Sierra Leone. In 1826 the Ashanti launched an offensive
against British coastal positions. They suffered high casualties and were turned
back by an alliance of British and Danish troops in a fierce battle on the
plains near Accra. The Ashanti signed a peace treaty with Britain in 1831. The
subsequent peace coincided with a period of increased European Christian
missionary work in the region.
In 1844 the British signed a political
agreement with a confederation of Fante states. Known as the Bond of 1844, the
agreement extended British protection to the signatory states and gave Britain a
degree of authority over them. In subsequent years, additional coastal and
interior states signed the Bond. Britain bought all of Denmark’s Gold Coast
territory in 1850 and purchased the Dutch fort at Elmina in 1872.
The systematic consolidation of British
power on the coast alarmed Ashanti leaders. With the 1872 purchase, the British
became the only European power left on the Gold Coast. The Ashanti, who for
years had enjoyed friendly relations with the Dutch, lost an important pathway
to the coast. Ashanti forces surrounded the British territory and then invaded
in 1873. After initial successes, the Ashanti were forced to retreat. An attempt
to negotiate a peaceful conclusion was rejected by the British commander, Sir
Garnet Wolseley. In January 1874 a large expeditionary force led by Wolseley
fought its way into Ashanti territory, capturing Kumasi and then burning the
Ashanti capital to the ground.
In a treaty that ended the war, the
Ashanti recognized British sovereignty over the coast, agreed to pay war
reparation costs, and renounced influence over all the territories under British
protection. In return, the British permitted the Ashanti commercial access to
the coast. In July 1874 the British proclaimed the coastal territories as the
Gold Coast Colony and moved their administrative center from Cape Coast to
Accra. In the subsequent years, internal dissention made it impossible for
Ashanti to control subject territories. In 1896 Britain attacked and occupied
Ashanti, declaring it a British protectorate. The asantehene and several Ashanti
elders were taken prisoner and exiled to the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean. In
1899 British forces occupied the Northern Territories, the high plains region
north of Ashanti.
A final Ashanti rebellion against the
British occurred in 1900. Under the command of Yaa Asantewa, queen mother of the
Ashanti state of Ejusu, the Ashanti demanded the return of their exiled leaders.
The rebellion was put down in 1901, and Ashanti was proclaimed a British colony.
In 1902 Ashanti and the Northern Territories were annexed to the Gold Coast
Colony. Thus, Britain became the sole power in the political and economic
affairs of what is now Ghana.
D | Colonial Gold Coast |
In the first decade of the 20th century,
British colonial authorities constructed a railway into the coastal interior,
boosting the colony’s economy. Exports of gold, manganese, and particularly
cacao increased. Gold Coast farmers produced so much cacao that the crop
supplanted gold as the colony’s most profitable product: In 1927, 82 percent of
the colony’s foreign earnings came from cacao. Private British companies
controlled almost all export and import interests in the colony.
The colonial government established
boards to inspect and standardize the management of schools in 1882. The
provision of education in the colony, however, remained in the hands of
missionary organizations. Mission schools tended to provide only basic primary
education, often only for boys. In the 1920s colonial governor Gordon Guggisberg
was responsible for the construction of several coeducational secondary schools
and technical institutions, as well as miles of rail lines and roads, and a
deep-water harbor at Takoradi. Guggisberg brought Africans into the colony’s
civil service and appointed the first Africans to the colonial Legislative
Council. These improvements helped create a social environment that fostered the
rise of nationalism.
D1 | Early Nationalist Movements |
Organized opposition to British
policies took place from the early days of colonial administration. In 1852
coastal chiefs protested the imposition of a poll tax, and in 1868 a
confederation of Fante states contested British interference in their local
affairs. In an effort to protect the erosion of their traditional rights, the
chiefs adopted a constitution in 1871 that was to regulate relations with the
British administration. The British reacted by arresting several of the
chiefs.
Most Gold Coast nationalist leaders
were educated Africans. An organization called the Aborigines’ Rights Protection
Society was formed in the 1890s to oppose land bills that threatened traditional
land tenure. In the early 20th century, nationalists challenged the arbitrary
nature of the colonial political system, which placed unlimited power in the
hands of the governor and his appointed Legislative Council. In 1920 Joseph E.
Casely-Hayford, a prominent Gold Coast lawyer and nationalist, organized the
National Congress of British West Africa. This body of educated persons from
Britain’s various West African colonies sent a delegation to the British
Colonial Office in London to argue that a colony’s administration should be
elected by its subjects. The British government, however, preferred to practice
indirect rule, relying on a colony’s traditional chiefs for local administration
at the exclusion of educated people. In their various newspapers and at
conferences, these early nationalists nevertheless continued to urge the
colonial government to initiate administrative changes.
Demands on the colonial government
intensified after World War II (1939-1945). In 1946 Governor Alan Burns
responded by announcing radical constitutional changes that made it possible for
a majority African Legislative Council to be elected. Executive power was to
remain in the hands of the governor, to whom the legislative council reported.
Even so, the 1946 constitution provided the people of the Gold Coast with a
higher degree of political power than anywhere else in colonial Africa. The
changes also showed nationalist leaders that their voices were being heard.
D2 | Kwame Nkrumah |
Founded in 1947, the United Gold Coast
Convention (UGCC) was the first nationwide political party to call for
self-government. Its leading members included the respected lawyer Joseph B.
Danquah and the American-educated socialist Kwame Nkrumah. The UGCC drew support
from educated Ghanaians, most of whom were either urban professionals or
traditional chiefs. Economic dissatisfaction among the Gold Coast’s Africans,
especially those who had served in World War II, resulted in nationwide rioting
in 1948. The colonial administration accused the nationalist leaders of inciting
the disturbances and arrested Nkrumah and several others. This only served to
make Nkrumah a more popular figure and fueled the call for self-rule.
Viewing Danquah and other UGCC leaders
as too conservative in their efforts to win independence, Nkrumah split with the
UGCC later in 1949 and formed his own Convention People’s Party (CPP). Nkrumah’s
watchword was “Independence Now”—an uncompromising policy that appealed to many.
The CPP drew populist support from rural and working class Ghanaians, further
distancing it from the more elite UGCC. In 1950 Nkrumah announced his “Positive
Action” campaign, which consisted of a boycott of foreign business,
noncooperation with the government, and a general workers’ strike. Public
services were disrupted, and when rioting occurred Nkrumah and some CPP leaders
were again arrested and imprisoned.
A new constitution was adopted in
1951, replacing the Legislative Council with a Legislative Assembly, designed to
provide rural Africans greater representation. In the 1951 elections, the CPP
won a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly. Colonial governor Sir
Charles Arden-Clarke released Nkrumah from prison and appointed him leader of
government business. Nkrumah and Arden-Clarke transformed the colonial
government into a parliamentary system, and in 1952 Nkrumah was elected to the
newly created office of prime minister. The UGCC and several regional-based
parties—including the Ashanti-dominated National Liberation Movement and the
Northern People’s Party—comprised the political opposition to Nkrumah and the
CPP. These groups opposed the new governmental structure, advocating a
federalist system.
E | Independent Ghana |
Following intense constitutional
negotiations and a hotly contested election, the CPP emerged on March 6, 1957,
to lead the government of an independent Ghana. Nkrumah became the country’s
first prime minister. The UGCC and several other opposition parties joined
together to form the United Party (UP).
E1 | Nkrumah’s Regime |
Nkrumah began his tenure as Africa’s
first black national leader with ambitious socialist goals and high hopes. He
advocated the rapid modernization of the nation’s economic sectors and pursued
several expensive developmental schemes. From 1961 to 1966 Nkrumah spearheaded
an ambitious and highly successful hydroelectric project on the Volta. A fervent
pan-Africanist (see Pan-Africanism), he declared that it was Ghana’s
brotherly responsibility to help Africa’s remaining colonies achieve
independence. He was instrumental in the formation of the Organization of
African Unity (OAU) as an African political forum. He sent Ghanaian soldiers on
United Nations (UN) assignments and supported freedom fighters in countries such
as South Africa and Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
At the same time, however, Nkrumah’s
rule became increasingly authoritarian. Soon after coming to power, the
CPP-controlled Parliament passed laws to increase the power of the prime
minister. The Deportation Act of 1957 made it legal for the government to expel
all foreigners who were deemed a threat to the nation. The Preventive Detention
Act of 1958 allowed the government to detain persons for up to five years
without trial. Nkrumah used these laws to silence the opposition, forcing many
dissidents into exile. The constitution was revised in 1960 to make Ghana a
republic. Nkrumah was named president, and the CPP was declared the only legal
political party. Opposition to Nkrumah grew in the early 1960s, and when
Ghanaians felt economic hardships at home, many blamed Nkrumah for his ambitious
and socialist programs. He was overthrown in a military coup in February 1966.
E2 | Ghana Since Nkrumah |
Conditions in Ghana worsened rapidly
following the overthrow of Nkrumah. The economy was stagnant, and Ghanaians,
disillusioned by the downfall of their once-revered founding father, were
divided. The National Liberation Council, the cabal behind the coup, put forward
a multiparty constitution and handed over power in 1969 to a democratically
elected government. Kofi A. Busia, a former UP leader and one of the nation’s
leading scholars, was elected prime minister. Busia’s government was
economically conservative but failed to improve Ghana’s depressed economic
conditions. When a drop in the price of cacao precipitated a financial crisis in
1971, his government raised prices and interest rates while devaluing the
currency, causing massive inflation. In January 1972 Busia’s government was
ousted by another army coup, ushering in a decade characterized by severe
economic decline and acute political instability.
The leader of the 1972 coup, Colonel
Ignatius K. Acheampong, banned political activity and established a ruling
military council. Military control was relaxed slightly in 1974, and a civilian
political affairs advisory council and an economic planning council were set up.
In 1978, however, the military council forced Acheampong to resign, giving way
to General Frederick W. Akuffo. Akuffo ruled for less than a year before he was
overthrown by Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings. Rawlings had both
Acheampong and Akuffo executed for corruption. Rawlings also arrested and
executed a number of other prominent military officers on charges of
compromising the image of the Ghana armed forces. In September 1979, just months
after seizing power, Rawlings stepped down in favor of an elected civilian
president, Hilla Limann. When economic conditions worsened, however, Limann was
deposed in a second coup led by Rawlings, on December 31, 1981.
Enjoying the support of workers and
the poor, Rawlings injected a populist, revolutionary spirit into Ghanaian
politics. The economy went through a severe decline in the early 1980s, leading
hundreds of thousands of people to leave the country, most migrating to Nigeria.
In 1983 the Nigerian government forced 1 million Ghanaians to return to their
home country. In the same year, Rawlings abandoned his more radical economic
strategies and negotiated a structural adjustment plan with the IMF. As the
economy recovered, Rawlings moved toward democratic reforms as well. A new
multiparty constitution was adopted by public referendum in 1992, and Rawlings
was elected president.
In the 1990s many foreign observers
praised Ghana for its increasingly open democracy. While visiting the country in
1998, U.S. president Bill Clinton recognized Ghana as a leader in a “new African
renaissance.” Rawlings was reelected president in 1996. Limited to two
terms by the 1992 constitution, he did not participate in the December 2000
elections, which marked the ascendancy of the opposition New Patriotic Party
(NPP). The NPP edged Rawlings’ party in legislative elections, and NPP candidate
John Kufuor defeated Rawlings’ vice president in the vote for president. Kufuor
was sworn in as president in January 2001, the first time since Ghana’s
independence that power changed hands peacefully and democratically. Kufuor was
reelected in December 2004.
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