I | INTRODUCTION |
Georgia
(country), republic in western Asia. Georgia is the westernmost country
of the South Caucasus (the southern portion of the region of Caucasus), which
occupies the isthmus between the Black and Caspian seas; Azerbaijan and Armenia
are also located in the South Caucasus. The name of the republic in Georgian,
the official language, is Sakartvelo.
Georgia is a country of extremely diverse
terrain, with high mountain ranges and fertile coastal lowlands. Ethnic
Georgians constitute a majority of the population. Georgia was made a part of
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. After Georgia gained
independence from the USSR in 1991, the country was plagued by civil war and
political upheaval. The economy suffered from these events and from severed
trading ties with other former Soviet republics, but in the mid-1990s it began
to recover when the political strife ebbed and free market reforms were
instituted. Georgia’s first post-Soviet constitution was adopted in August
1995.
Georgia includes two autonomous republics:
Ajaria, located in Georgia’s southwestern corner, and Abkhazia, in the
northwestern arm of the republic. Both republics include stretches of the Black
Sea coast. Georgia also contains the autonomous region of South Ossetia, which
is located in the north central part of the country. Abkhazia and South Ossetia
are bordered on the north by Russia, and Ajaria is bordered on the south by
Turkey.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES OF GEORGIA |
Georgia covers an area of about 69,700 sq km
(about 26,900 sq mi). It is situated on the east coast of the Black Sea and
bounded by Russia on the north and by Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Turkey on the
south. Rugged mountain ranges dominate Georgia’s landscape, constituting about
85 percent of the total land area. The main ridge of the Caucasus Mountains, or
Greater Caucasus, forms most of Georgia’s northern border with Russia and
contains the country’s highest elevations, including Mount Shkhara (5,200
m/17,060 ft), Georgia’s highest peak. The highest peak fully contained in the
country is Mount Kazbek (5,037 m/16,526 ft), in the central Greater Caucasus.
Many other peaks reach heights of 4,500 m (15,000 ft) or greater. The Lesser
Caucasus mountains occupy the southern part of the republic and rarely exceed an
elevation of 3,000 m (10,000 ft). These two mountain systems are linked by the
centrally located Surami mountain range, which bisects the country along a
northeast-southwest axis. The Surami range includes the Meskheti and Likhi
ranges. To the west of this range the relief becomes much lower, and elevations
are generally less than 100 m (300 ft) along the river valleys and the coast of
the Black Sea. On the eastern side of the Surami Range, a high plateau known as
the Kartaliniya Plain extends along the Kura River to the border with
Azerbaijan.
The two largest rivers in Georgia, the Kura
(Mtkvari) and the Rioni, flow in opposite directions: the Kura, which originates
in Turkey, runs generally eastward through Georgia and Azerbaijan into the
Caspian Sea, while the Rioni drains into the Black Sea to the west. A delta
region known as the Kolkhidskaya Lowlands encompasses the lower Rioni valley as
well as most of the Georgian coast. Along with the Rioni, the Inguri and Kodori
rivers flow through this fertile region.
Georgia’s climate ranges from year-round
subtropical conditions on the Black Sea coast to continental conditions, with
cold winters and hot summers, in the extreme east. The mountainous regions have
cold, wet winters and cool summers, and the highest peaks are perpetually
covered with snow. Annual precipitation also varies by region; along the coast
it often exceeds 2,000 mm (80 in), while in the eastern plains it measures
between 400 and 700 mm (20 and 30 in).
Georgia contains diverse plant and animal
life. Land at lower elevations has been extensively reworked for agricultural
purposes and contains little of its native wildlife. The gray marmot, ibex, and
chamois, however, can be found in alpine areas, and wolves, foxes, roe deer, and
badgers populate the forests. Dense forests and brush cover more than one-third
of the country, mostly in the western and mountainous regions. In the eastern
uplands, which are sparsely wooded, underbrush and grasses predominate.
Georgia’s natural resources include abundant
mineral deposits, such as manganese, iron ore, coal, gold, marble, and
alabaster. The republic’s many fast-flowing rivers are an important source of
hydroelectricity, and forests provide pulp and timber. Substantial but as yet
undeveloped oil deposits are located in the Black Sea shelf near the port cities
of Bat’umi and P’ot’i.
Like other republics of the USSR, Georgia
suffered severe environmental degradation during the Soviet period, when
economic policies emphasizing heavy industry were implemented with little regard
for their environmental consequences. As a legacy of these policies, Georgia now
suffers from serious pollution. Air pollution is a problem in the major cities,
particularly in Rustavi, which has a giant steelworks and other metallurgical
industries. In addition, the Kura River and the Black Sea are heavily polluted
with industrial waste. As a result of water pollution and the scarcity of water
treatment, the incidence of digestive diseases in Georgia is high. The use of
pesticides and fertilizers has increased soil toxicity.
Environmental protection did not become a
major concern among Georgians until the mid-1980s, but even then systems to
control harmful emissions were not readily available. Georgia’s economic
problems have hindered the application of recent emission-control technologies.
The protection of upland pastures and hill farms from soil erosion is another
pressing issue that the government has not addressed owing to lack of economic
resources. The government has ratified international environmental agreements
pertaining to air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, ozone layer
protection, ship pollution, and wetlands.
III | THE PEOPLE OF GEORGIA |
The population of Georgia is 4,630,841 (2008
estimate), giving the country an average population density of 66 persons per sq
km (172 per sq mi). Some 51 percent of the country’s inhabitants live in cities.
Population is concentrated mainly along the coast of the Black Sea and in river
valleys, especially the valley of the Kura River, where Tbilisi, the capital and
largest city, is located. The next largest city, K’ut’aisi, is located on the
upper Rioni River. Other important urban centers include Bat’umi and Sokhumi,
which are the capitals of Ajaria and Abkhazia, and Rustavi, located on the Kura
downstream from Tbilisi.
Nearly 100 different ethnic groups make up
Georgia’s population. Georgians are the largest group, making up about 70
percent of the population, followed by Armenians (about 8 percent), Russians
(about 6 percent), and Azerbaijanis (about 6 percent). Significant numbers of
Ossetians, Greeks, and Abkhazians also reside in the republic.
Georgian has been the country’s official
language since 1918, when Georgia briefly gained its independence. The language
belongs to the South Caucasian, or Kartvelian, language family and uses a
distinct alphabet that was developed in the 5th century. A non-Indo-European and
non-Turkic language, Georgian is unrelated to any other major world language.
Georgian remained the official language of the republic during the Soviet
period, although Russian predominated in communications from the central
government in Moscow. Georgian is not spoken by many of the country’s ethnic
minorities, such as the Ossetians and Abkhazians, who speak their own native
languages and frequently Russian as well. Russian is the first language of about
9 percent of the population.
The Georgian identity has been closely tied
to religion since the introduction of Christianity in the early 4th century. The
Georgian Orthodox Church dates to that time. After about 100 years of
subjugation by the Russian Orthodox Church, the Georgian Orthodox Church
reclaimed its independence following the Russian Revolution of 1917. During the
subsequent Soviet period, religious practice was strongly discouraged because
the Soviet state was officially atheistic; however, the Georgian Orthodox Church
was allowed to function openly.
Orthodox Christianity is the religion of
about 58 percent of the Georgian population. Muslims represent about 19 percent
of the country’s population, with ethnic Azerbaijanis, Kurds, and Ajars
comprising the principal Muslim groups. Ajars are ethnic Georgians who converted
to Islam in the 17th century; they reside primarily in the autonomous republic
of Ajaria. Judaism is also practiced, although to a lesser extent.
Georgia has an adult literacy rate of 99.5
percent, a result of the Soviet emphasis on free and universal education.
Georgians were among the most highly educated of all the nationalities in the
former USSR. Since independence, however, all levels of education in Georgia
have been seriously underfunded, resulting in lower educational standards. Most
schools are state operated and provide tuition-free education; however, a number
of private schools have opened since the early 1990s. Education is compulsory
from the first through eleventh grades, and most students enter the school
system at age six. Institutions of higher education in Georgia include the
University of Tbilisi and Georgian Technical University, both located in
Tbilisi. Abkhazia has its own university, Abkhazian State University.
Despite centuries of foreign domination,
Georgia has maintained a distinct culture, one influenced by both Asian and
European traditions. The Georgian language is one indication of this cultural
individuality. Georgia’s ancient culture is evident in the republic’s
architecture, which is renowned for the role it played in the development of the
Byzantine style. The republic also has a long tradition of highly skilled
metalwork, with excavations of ancient tombs revealing finely wrought pieces in
bronze, gold, and silver.
Although a Georgian literary tradition dates
from the 5th century, the 12th and 13th centuries are considered the golden age
of Georgian literary development. The national epic of Georgia,
Vepkhis-tqaosani (The Man in the Tiger’s Skin), was written during this
period by poet Shotha Rusthaveli (see Georgian Literature). Western
European cultural movements, especially romanticism, began to influence Georgian
writers and artists during the 19th century. Many Georgian writers produced
works of high quality in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Beginning in the 1920s,
however, the Soviet regime required artistic works to glorify socialist ideals
(see Socialist Realism). Georgian writers and artists were censored and
in some cases executed for noncompliance. During the Soviet period, Georgian
author Konstantin Gamsakhurdia won acclaim for his historical novels.
The State Literary Museum of Georgia,
located in Tbilisi, contains a thorough history of Georgian literature from the
19th and 20th centuries. The State Museum of Georgia, which contains
archaeological exhibits, and the Georgian State Art Museum also are located in
Tbilisi.
IV | ECONOMY OF GEORGIA |
The breakup of the Soviet Union severely
dislocated the economy of Georgia by disrupting established trade patterns.
Three separate armed conflicts and several years of political instability
created even more serious damage. The country’s gross domestic product (GDP),
which measures the total value of goods and services produced, declined between
1990 and 1995 by the greatest amount of any former Soviet republic. Georgia
became increasingly dependent upon foreign financial and humanitarian aid. But
beginning in the mid-1990s, increasing political stability allowed Georgia to
make significant progress toward renewing economic growth.
Several attributes brighten Georgia’s
long-term economic prospects. The country’s warm climate and position on the
eastern shore of the Black Sea make the country suitable for agricultural and
tourism development. It also straddles the best transportation routes across the
Caucasus Mountains. Abundant rivers flowing from the mountains provide water for
crop irrigation and hydroelectric production.
The private sector was active in Georgia even
before the end of the Soviet era, with a thriving black market in which
everything from bread to cars was bought and bartered illegally. The government
adopted a privatization law shortly after independence but delayed its full
implementation until the return of political stability in the mid-1990s. While
intending to transform state-managed enterprises into profitable companies, the
government retains a share of most operations.
Georgia’s GDP in 2006 was $7.74 billion.
Agriculture, including forestry and fishing, contributed 13 percent of the
total. Industry, including manufacturing, mining, and construction, produced 25
percent of GDP. Services, which include trade and financial activities,
accounted for 62 percent. However, a large portion of the Georgian economy is in
the so-called informal sector and outside of usual economic reporting.
Agriculture is an important feature of the
Georgian economy, and the country has one of the most diverse agricultural
sectors of any of the former Soviet republics. The lowlands of the west have a
subtropical climate and produce tea and citrus fruits, while grapes and
deciduous fruits grow in the uplands. The country’s long growing season allows
it to grow almost any crop, and Georgia also produces large amounts of
vegetables and grains. Draining of swampy coastal lowlands around the mouth of
the Rioni River added much fertile land. Livestock raising is also important;
milk from cows and goats is used to make cheese. The agricultural sector
provides 54 percent of employment.
The processing of agricultural goods is the
most significant part of Georgia’s industrial activity. The country also gained
importance as an industrial region because of the abundance of mineral deposits
(manganese, iron ore, molybdenum, and gold) and fuel (coal and petroleum). The
industrial sector provided 9 percent of employment in 2005.
During the Soviet period the Georgian Black
Sea coast was a favorite vacation area for residents of the Soviet bloc.
Visitation to the resorts nearly ceased in the early 1990s with the outbreak of
armed conflict and economic disintegration. With the return of political
stability, the region regained its potential as a tourist destination.
Energy shortages hampered the Georgian
economy beginning in 1993, when prices for imported fuels from Russia and other
suppliers increased. The government of Georgia rationed household electricity
and heating fuel during winters, power outages were frequent and long lasting,
and many industries were closed due to fuel shortages. Energy shortages were
subsequently eased through the development of the country’s capacity for
hydroelectric power. In 2003 hydroelectricity accounted for 83 percent of the
country’s total power generation.
Meanwhile, Georgia’s improving economy
increased its ability to pay for fuel imports. In addition, Georgia leveraged
its strategic location to bargain for its interests in the construction of new
oil and natural gas pipelines through its territory. The first of these, a
petroleum pipeline from Baku, Azerbaijan, to Supsa on Georgia’s Black Sea coast,
opened in 1999. Two additional pipelines, transporting both petroleum and
natural gas from the Caspian fields of Azerbaijan through Georgia to Turkey,
commenced operations in 2005 and 2006. Georgia receives a portion of the
transported fuel as a transit fee.
During the Soviet period nearly all of
Georgia’s trade was with other republics of the former Soviet Union. Following
independence Georgia worked to establish new trading relationships. Turkey
became its principal trading partner, accounting for more than a quarter of
total trade. Leading exports are metal products, coffee, tea, and beverages;
chief imports are energy and food products.
Aided by the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), the government reduced inflation from 62 percent per month in 1994 to
less than 1 percent per month in 1997. In September 1995 the Georgian government
introduced a new currency, the lari, in an attempt to stabilize the
economy and improve living conditions (1.80 lari equal U.S.$1; 2006). The lari
replaced the Georgian coupon, a provisional currency that had declined
dramatically in value since being issued in July 1993.
V | GOVERNMENT OF GEORGIA |
Georgia is a democratic republic with a
strong executive presidency. In August 1995 a new constitution replaced the 1992
decree on state power, which had been instituted as an interim constitution
after Georgia declared its independence. The new constitution reestablished the
presidency, which had been created in 1991 but was abolished after the country’s
first president, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, was ousted in 1992. According to the 1995
constitution, the president, who is head of state, is directly elected to a
maximum of two five-year terms. The new constitution abolished the post of prime
minister, but a constitutional amendment adopted in February 2004 reintroduced
the position. The prime minister heads the government, whose ministers oversee
the day-to-day functions of government in their jurisdictions. They are
ultimately accountable to the president. All citizens aged 18 and older may vote
in Georgia.
The 1995 constitution also established a new
unicameral (single-chamber) legislature called Parliament. All 235 members of
Parliament are elected to four-year terms, with 150 elected on a proportional
basis (with the number of delegates from each party corresponding to the
proportion of the total vote that party receives) and 85 elected by majority
vote in single-member constituencies (one elected delegate per territorial
unit). The new legislature replaced the State Council, which had been created in
October 1992; between 1992 and 1995 the chairperson of the State Council had
held executive powers in place of a president.
Each of Georgia’s autonomous political
entities—the republics of Ajaria and Abkhazia and the region of South
Ossetia—has its own locally elected government, consisting of a legislature and
a local leader. The local governments of Abkhazia and South Ossetia are not
recognized by the central government, however, because of the long-standing
secessionist conflicts in these regions. Abkhazia is essentially independent,
and South Ossetia is almost independent. Ajaria does not seek secession from
Georgia; its local government cooperates with the central government and
recognizes the constitution of Georgia as the guiding force for local
legislation. For purposes of local administration, the remainder of Georgia is
divided into prefectures headed by prefects appointed by the Georgian president,
who report to the central government.
Georgia’s judiciary is based on a civil-law
system. The Supreme Court is the highest court. Its judges are elected by the
legislature, on the recommendation of the president, for a term of ten years.
Georgia also has a Constitutional Court, which rules on the constitutionality of
new legislation. The president, the legislature, and the Supreme Court each
appoint three of the nine judges of the Constitutional Court, who serve for ten
years.
During the Soviet period, Georgia had no
armed forces separate from the centrally controlled Soviet security system.
After the republic declared its independence in 1991, the Georgian government
set a high priority on developing a unified national military. Georgia’s defense
forces now include an army of 7,042 troops (with plans to increase the army to
20,000), a navy of 1,350, and an air force of 1,350. All males must begin a
two-year period of military service when they reach the age of 18.
Georgia was admitted to the United Nations
(UN) in July 1992. In 1993 Georgia became a member of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS), a loose political alliance of most of the former
Soviet republics. In 1994 the republic joined the Partnership for Peace program,
which provides for limited military cooperation with the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). Georgia is also a member of the Organization for Security
and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
VI | HISTORY OF GEORGIA |
A | Origins |
In about the 500s bc, western Georgia was colonized by
Ionian Greeks; its western part was known as Colchis and the eastern region as
Iberia. Christianity was introduced in the early 4th century ad. The Persian and Byzantine empires
then fought for control over Georgia until the 7th century, when the region was
conquered by the Arabs.
In the 11th century King Bagrat III united
the Georgian principalities into one kingdom, with the exception of Tbilisi,
which was an emirate (territory ruled by an emir, or Turkish prince) under the
control of Seljuk Turks. In 1122 King David II, one of Bagrat’s descendants,
expelled the Turks and recovered Tbilisi. Under Queen Tamar, whose rule
straddled the 12th and 13th centuries, the Georgian kingdom reached its zenith
and grew to include most of the Caucasus. Georgian culture also experienced a
golden age during this period. Then in the 13th century, Mongol armies invaded
the Georgian lands. By the end of the 15th century the Georgian kingdom had
disintegrated entirely as a result of the Mongol invasions.
B | Iranian and Ottoman Empires |
In the early 1500s the Iranian and Ottoman
empires invaded Georgia. In 1553 the two Muslim powers partitioned Georgia’s
territory, with Iran taking the east and the Ottomans taking the west. The
Iranians and the Ottomans fought against one another for complete control of
Georgia until the late 1500s, when the Ottomans were driven out. In the 1720s
the Ottomans attempted another conquest, but the Iranians expelled them again.
Iran then placed the Georgian kingdom of Kartli under the rule of local Bagratid
royals. The Bagratids had originated in the borderlands between Georgia and
Armenia. Originally an Armenian dynasty, one branch of the Bagratids eventually
became Georgianized.
C | Kingdom of Georgia |
In 1762 Erekle II of the Bagratids
reunited the eastern Georgian regions of Kartli and Kakheti, forming a new
Georgian kingdom that covered much of present-day Georgia. In the late 1700s
King Erekle turned to Russia for protection against foreign conquest, primarily
by Iran, and in 1783 he accepted Russian suzerainty in return for Russia’s
guarantee to maintain his kingdom’s borders. Nevertheless, Iranian forces sacked
Tbilisi in 1795. In 1801 Russia deposed the Bagratid king and annexed the
eastern Georgian kingdom to the Russian Empire. Russia annexed the western
Georgian region of Imereti in 1810 and the remainder of western Georgia between
1829 and 1878.
D | The Soviet Period |
The Russian Empire collapsed in the
Russian Revolution of 1917, and an independent Georgian state was established in
May 1918. The Mensheviks, or moderate socialists, initially controlled the
Georgian government. However, in 1921 during the Russian Civil War, Red Army
troops invaded the country under the orders of Bolshevik (militant socialist)
officials Joseph Stalin and Grigory Ordzhonikidze, both native Georgians. In
ordering the invasion, Stalin and Ordzhonikidze were acting against the wishes
of Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. See also Bolshevism.
Georgia was now under the control of the
Bolsheviks (later known as the Communists). Stalin was, at the time, directing
nationality affairs from the central government in Moscow. From this position,
he hatched a scheme to join Georgia with Armenia and Azerbaijan. This union was
to form a new political entity, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist
Republic (SFSR). In December 1922, when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) was founded with four constituent republics, one of them was the
Transcaucasian SFSR. However, in 1936 the Transcaucasian republic was dissolved,
and Georgia became its own constituent Soviet republic, as did Armenia and
Azerbaijan. The Georgian republic was called the Georgian Soviet Socialist
Republic (SSR).
Meanwhile, in July 1921 the Ajarian
Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) was formed within Georgia. Abkhazia
was initially a separate Soviet republic, but in 1921 it was merged with
Georgia, and in 1931 it was downgraded to the status of an autonomous republic.
In April 1922 the Soviet government created the political entity of South
Ossetia and designated it an autonomous region within Georgia, while its
northern counterpart on the other side of the Greater Caucasus, North Ossetia
(now Alania), became part of Russia.
Georgians vigorously resisted Soviet rule,
but by 1924, many Georgian dissidents had been executed and others imprisoned on
the orders of the central government in Moscow. Even active nationalists who
were members of the Communist Party of Georgia, the only political party allowed
to function, were punished in an attempt to wipe out all nationalist tendencies
in the republic. In the late 1920s Stalin established himself as the undisputed
leader of the Soviet Union, ushering in a despotic regime that lasted until his
death in 1953. Stalin’s close associate Lavrenty Beria served as first secretary
of the Communist Party of Transcaucasia, and then of the Communist Party of
Georgia, throughout the 1930s. During the Great Purge (1936-1938)—a campaign of
terror that served to solidify Stalin’s dictatorship—Beria collaborated with
Stalin to carry out massive arrests and executions of Georgian party officials,
intellectuals, and rank-and-file citizens.
During World War II (1939-1945), Stalin
ordered the deportation of entire minority groups, mainly Turkic, from Georgia
and the rest of the Caucasus on the assumption that they would support the
invading Axis powers. After Stalin’s death, a liberalizing process known as
de-Stalinization was implemented throughout the Soviet Union under Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev.
In 1972 Eduard Shevardnadze was appointed
first secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia, a post he held until his
promotion to head of the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1985. In the
1980s Shevardnadze became an outspoken supporter of the reformist policies of
Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.
However, Gorbachev’s policies of
glasnost (Russian for “openness”) and perestroika
(“restructuring”), introduced in the mid-1980s, led many Abkhazians and
Ossetians in Georgia to begin agitating for increased autonomy. Friction between
the Georgian government and these ethnic minorities increased after the Georgian
Supreme Soviet (legislature) passed a law establishing the Georgian language as
the official state language in 1989. On April 9 of that year, demonstrators in
Tbilisi, who were demanding that Abkhazia remain a part of Georgia and
advocating Georgian independence from the USSR, were attacked by Soviet security
forces. Nineteen people were killed and many others injured, resulting in
increased anti-Soviet sentiment.
E | Georgian Independence |
In the late 1980s Communist regimes
collapsed in many nations of Eastern Europe, strengthening the independence
movements already stirring in the Soviet republics. For the first time during
the Soviet period, political parties other than the Communist Party were allowed
to participate in elections to the Georgian Supreme Soviet, held in November
1990. The Communist Party of Georgia lost its monopoly on power, with the
majority of votes going to the Round Table-Free Georgia coalition of
pro-independence parties. Zviad Gamsakhurdia, the leader of the coalition and a
longtime nationalist dissident, became chairperson of the new legislature and
Georgia’s de facto head of state. In April 1991 the Georgian Supreme Soviet
declared the republic’s independence from the USSR. In August the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) collapsed after conservative Communists botched
a coup attempt against Gorbachev, and in December the USSR officially
collapsed.
In May 1991 Gamsakhurdia was elected as
Georgia’s first president. Serious internal strife developed soon afterwards,
and in September and October a number of opposition parties charged Gamsakhurdia
with imposing an authoritarian style of leadership and staged a series of
demonstrations demanding his resignation. Gamsakhurdia responded by ordering the
arrest of opposition leaders and declaring a state of emergency in Tbilisi. In
December armed conflict broke out in the capital, and opposition forces besieged
Gamsakhurdia in the government’s headquarters. Gamsakhurdia and some of his
supporters fled the capital in early January 1992, and the opposition declared
him deposed. Georgia’s presidency was abolished, and former Soviet official
Shevardnadze was chosen in March to lead the country as acting chairperson of
the State Council (the country’s new legislature). Shevardnadze was elected to
the post by popular vote later that year. Gamsakhurdia’s followers made several
attempts to reinstate him by force, but these attempts were not successful, and
Gamsakhurdia died in late 1993 or early 1994 in circumstances that never have
been fully clarified.
Following independence, Georgia’s Ossetian
and Abkhazian minorities continued to seek greater levels of autonomy for their
regions but were faced with increasing nationalist sentiment among the Georgian
majority. Violent fighting between Ossetians and Georgians had begun in 1989,
and this fighting continued in South Ossetia until a peacekeeping force of
mostly Russian troops was deployed in 1992. Then in July of that year, the
leaders of Abkhazia declared the independence of their republic. Georgian
authorities sent troops into Abkhazia, and heavy fighting broke out in the
region. By October 1993 Abkhazian forces had expelled the Georgian militia and
more than 200,000 ethnic Georgians had fled from Abkhazia. In the same month the
Georgian government joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in order
to win Russian military support. In February 1994 Russia and Georgia reached an
agreement that allowed Russia to maintain three military bases on Georgian
territory in exchange for military training and supplies.
In April 1994 a UN-sponsored agreement was
reached that established an immediate cease-fire in Abkhazia, to be guaranteed
by a force of about 2,500 Russian peacekeeping troops. The agreement also
established committees to oversee the repatriation of Georgians who had fled the
area. By the end of the year, about 30,000 refugees were reported to have
returned to their homes in the region. Under the agreement, Abkhazia was to
remain part of Georgia while maintaining a high degree of autonomy. When
Abkhazia adopted its own constitution in November, however, it declared itself
an independent state. In February 1995 the Abkhazian leadership announced that
the republic was abandoning its demands for complete secession from Georgia and
would instead insist upon a confederal structure of two sovereign states.
F | New Constitution |
In August 1995 the Georgian legislature
approved a new constitution, which restored the office of the presidency and
established a 235-member legislature. The constitution did not define the
territorial status of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
In November, presidential and legislative
elections took place in Georgia. The elections were not held in Abkhazia and
South Ossetia, where sporadic clashes continued to occur. Shevardnadze was
overwhelmingly elected as president, winning more than 70 percent of the vote.
His party, the Citizens’ Union of Georgia, won the largest number of seats in
the new legislature.
In January 1996 CIS leaders agreed, at
Shevardnadze’s request, to impose economic sanctions against Abkhazia until it
agreed to rejoin Georgia. In November 1996 both Abkhazia and South Ossetia held
local elections that the Georgian government declared invalid. By the end of the
year, however, the governments of Georgia and South Ossetia reached an agreement
to avoid the use of force against one another, and Georgia pledged not to impose
sanctions against South Ossetia. In early 1997 more Georgian refugees were
reportedly repatriated to Abkhazia. More than 30,000 people fled their homes in
Abkhazia in May 1998 because of renewed fighting between separatist and
pro-Georgian forces. A political settlement regarding the territorial status of
the two regions remained out of reach, and Russian troops continued to maintain
a peacekeeping presence.
In February 1998 President Shevardnadze
survived an assassination attempt when his motorcade was attacked in Tbilisi by
a group of men armed with guns and grenade launchers. The president had survived
another attempt on his life in 1995. Four or five Gamsakhurdia supporters were
arrested in February, but Shevardnadze accused reactionary forces in Russia of
masterminding and participating in the attack. In October 1998 Gamsakhurdia
supporters in the military led a one-day revolt, taking over the army garrison
at Senaki, then marching on K’ut’aisi. The mutinous soldiers fought with
government troops, but surrendered after talks with government negotiators.
In legislative elections held in October
1999, the Citizens’ Union of Georgia won a majority of the seats. Shevardnadze
was reelected president in April 2000, although election monitors criticized the
election as flawed and Shevardnadze faced a declining economy.
G | Political Upheaval |
Economic ills and charges of government
corruption caught up with Shevardnadze in November 2003 when he was forced to
resign. Parliamentary elections on November 2 were reportedly marred by fraud.
Both the United States and international election monitors from the Organization
for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) denounced the election, citing
ballot-box stuffing and other voting irregularities. Tens of thousands of
opposition supporters demonstrated for weeks to protest the election results.
Then, in late November, the protesters seized the Parliament building and forced
Shevardnadze to vacate his office. When the military failed to come to his
defense, Shevardnadze resigned. Opposition leader Mikhail Saakashvili proclaimed
a “velvet revolution,” similar to the nonviolent uprising that ousted the
Communist government of Czechoslovakia in 1989. Georgia’s nonviolent coup became
known as the Rose Revolution for the rose that Saakashvili carried in his mouth
as he entered the Parliament building during the takeover.
As required by Georgia’s constitution, the
parliamentary speaker, Nino Burdzhanadze, an opposition leader and former member
of Shevardnadze’s inner circle, became acting president. Saakashvili was elected
president by an overwhelming margin in January 2004. The following month the
Parliament of Georgia adopted several constitutional amendments, which among
other provisions created the post of prime minister to head the government.
Soon after the revolution, President
Saakashvili was faced with a growing crisis in the autonomous region of Ajaria,
whose long-standing president, Aslan Abashidze, refused to recognize
Saakashvili’s full authority as president of Georgia. In early May 2004
Abashidze claimed that government forces were preparing to invade Ajaria and
ordered his forces to blow up bridges and dismantle railway lines connecting
Ajaria with the rest of Georgia. Saakashvili threatened Abashidze with forced
removal if he refused to disarm his forces and comply with the constitution of
Georgia. Faced with eroding support, including large pro-Saakashvili
demonstrations in Bat’umi, Abashidze resigned and left the country.
New parliamentary elections were held in
March 2004 to fill the 150 seats in the 235-seat Parliament chosen by
proportional representation. The November 2003 election results for these seats
had been annulled, but the results for the remaining 85 seats, chosen by
majority vote in single-member constituencies, had been deemed valid. A
pro-Saakashvili coalition of the National Movement and the United Democrats won
135 seats, giving it a total of 152, and an opposition alliance called the
Rightist Opposition (formed by the Industrialists and the New Rights Party) won
15 seats, bringing its total to 23.
In late 2007 Saakashvili faced a political
crisis as massive demonstrations erupted in Tbilisi calling for his resignation
and early presidential elections. Opposition protesters accused Saakashvili of
corruption and authoritarianism. On the sixth day of protests riot police used
force—including tear gas, water cannons, and rubber bullets—to disperse the
protesters. Saakashvili called a nationwide state of emergency, which was
subsequently approved by Parliament. He acceded to the opposition demand for
early elections, announcing they would be held in January 2008, and the state of
emergency was lifted after nine days, on November 16. In response to opposition
demands, Saakashvili scheduled an early presidential election for January 2008.
He won the election with nearly 52 percent of the vote.
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