I | INTRODUCTION |
Finland, country in northwestern Europe on the Baltic
Sea. Finland is one of Europe’s most northerly countries, with about one-third
of its area lying north of the Arctic Circle. Finland is a land of vast green
forests and sparkling lakes, of ultramodern buildings and old, walled castles.
Its woodlands, which are its most important natural resource, are often referred
to as Finland’s “green gold.” Helsinki is the capital and largest city of
Finland.
Finland is generally a low-lying country.
Great sheets of ice covered Finland until a few thousand years ago. The movement
of the ice sheets ground down the terrain, leaving a landscape dotted with
thousands of lakes. The country’s official name is the Republic of Finland, but
the Finns call their country Suomi—a word that means “land of lakes and
marshes.”
Finland is landlocked to the north, where it
borders Norway, and to the east, where it borders Russia. To the south lies the
Gulf of Finland and to the west lies the Gulf of Bothnia. Thousands of small,
rocky islands fringe Finland’s southwestern coast. Few of the islands are
inhabited. The most important island group is an extensive archipelago called
Ahvenanmaa, (Åland Islands), located at the mouth of the Gulf of Bothnia.
In Finland’s Arctic region, there is almost
continuous daylight from May through July. During these months of “midnight
sun,” Finland’s scenic coastal areas draw thousands of boaters. In the interior,
Finland’s large tracts of unspoiled wilderness attract hikers from around the
world.
Finland is sometimes grouped with the
countries of Scandinavia, with which it maintains close ties. However, for
centuries, Finland was a border zone between the rival powers of Sweden and
Russia. After 700 years of Swedish domination, Finland fell to Russia in 1809.
It first became an independent state in 1917, after the Russian Revolution. From
the end of World War II to 1991, Finland was bound to the Soviet Union by strong
economic ties and by a treaty of friendship and cooperation signed in 1948.
After 1991, Finland moved toward closer relations with Europe and became a full
member of the European Union (EU) in 1995.
Although Finland is one of the youngest
nations in Europe, it is renowned for its distinct cultural traditions. Finland
is especially noted for its contributions to modern architecture and industrial
design. The sauna, or Finnish steam bath, is world-famous and part of the
Finnish way of life.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
The area of Finland, which includes 33,551 sq
km (12,954 sq mi) of inland water, totals 338,145 sq km (130,559 sq mi)—an area
slightly smaller than the state of Montana. Most of Finland is flat. Low hills
that rise across the central and southern interior rarely exceed 300 m (1,000
ft). Finland’s highest elevations are in the northwest. Haltiatunturi, a peak in
the far northwest near the border with Norway, rises to a height of 1,328 m
(4,357 ft). The northernmost regions of Finland, which lie within the Arctic
Circle, make up a part of Saamiland.
Finland’s coastline is low, rocky, and deeply
indented by small bays and inlets. Most of Finland’s major cities and cultivated
land lie along the nation’s coastal plain. Projecting southwest into the Baltic
Sea is the Ahvenanmaa archipelago (Landskapet Åland in Swedish), which
consists of some 6,500 islands. Only about 80 of the islands are inhabited.
Finland’s interior is heavily forested, and
its surface is a tangle of lakes, rivers, swamps, and bogs. Glacial deposits
called eskers, composed of sand, gravel, and boulders, form low ridges
that crisscross the land. The stony ridges have long served as transportation
routes through the thousands of lakes that cover the country. The deposits also
dammed many of Finland’s ancient valleys and disrupted river drainages. These
disruptions created many of the waterfalls and rapids that give Finland rich
waterpower resources.
Geographers estimate that Finland has more
than 60,000 lakes. Most of the lakes lie in central and southern Finland in an
area called the Lake District. Within the Lake District, about half the total
area is covered by water. Rivers and natural channels link the lakes together in
intricate chains. Among the most important lakes is Lake Saimaa, part of an
extensive lake system in the southeast. This system forms a drainage that is
very important for floating timber to mills and transporting goods to areas not
served by rail or roads. Other major lakes include Inarijärvi and Päijänne.
Among the principal rivers are the Torneälven (Tornio), Muonio, Kemijoki, and
Oulu. Only the Oulu is navigable by large craft.
A | Plants and Animals |
Thick forests cover about 67 percent of
Finland. The forests are chiefly coniferous, dominated by spruce and pine trees,
except in the far south where aspen, alder, maple, and elm trees are found.
Finland has nearly 1,200 species of plants and ferns and some 1,000 varieties of
lichens.
Wildlife includes bear, wolf, lynx, and
arctic fox. All live mainly in the less populated northern regions. Reindeer,
domesticated by the Saami people for use as a food source and means of
transportation, are nearly extinct in the wild. Wild goose, swan, ptarmigan,
snow bunting, and golden plover nest throughout northern Finland. Freshwater
fish include perch, salmon, trout, and pike. The leading saltwater fish are cod,
herring, and haddock. Seals are found along the coast.
B | Soils |
Finland’s soils are of generally poor
quality. Gray mountain soils predominate in inland regions. Peat bogs cover the
northern third of Finland. The most fertile soils are on the southern coastal
plains, which are composed of marine clay.
C | Climate |
Because Finland lies above the 60th
parallel, summer days are long and cool and winter days are short and cold.
During summer, daylight lasts as long as 19 hours a day in the far south. In the
Arctic areas of the far north, there is continuous daylight for 73 days, making
Finland one of the lands of the “midnight sun.” In winter, the sun does not rise
above the horizon for 51 days.
In the south, the climate is moderated by
the proximity of the sea. The average July temperature along the southern coast
is 16°C (60°F); in February the average is about -9°C (about 16°F).
Precipitation (including snow and rain) averages about 460 mm (about 18 in) in
the north and 710 mm (28 in) in the south. Light snow covers the ground for four
or five months of the year in the south and seven or eight months in the north.
Throughout the year, however, the weather is subject to sudden changes from day
to day, and frosts are a hazard to farming, even in summer.
D | Natural Resources |
Productive forestland is the most valuable
natural resource of Finland. Spruce, pine, and silver birch are the principal
trees used to manufacture wood and pulp and paper products.
Finland lacks coal and petroleum resources
and is a net importer of energy resources. However, Finland does have
significant deposits of peat, which is cut from the numerous peat bogs that
cover much of the north. Peat is an important heat source for homes, and it
provides about 7 percent of Finland’s electricity needs. In addition, Finland’s
many watersheds endow the country with significant waterpower resources. In
2003, 12 percent of Finland’s annual electric-power production was supplied by
hydroelectric plants.
Finland also has several rich deposits of
metallic ores from which copper, zinc, iron, and nickel are extracted. Lead,
vanadium, silver, and gold are also mined commercially. Granite and limestone
are the most abundant nonmetallic minerals.
E | Environmental Issues |
Acid rain, which damages buildings, soils,
forests, and fish and other wildlife, is one of the major environmental issues
facing Finland. The country’s sulfur dioxide (see sulfur) emissions fell
steadily in the late 20th century after the implementation of the United Nations
(UN) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Sulfur Protocols. However, Finland
continues to receive acid-rain-causing pollutants from beyond its borders.
Air quality in Finland is better than in
most other European countries. However, substantial problems do exist as a
result of emissions from motor vehicles and industrial sources. The vast
majority of the population—and, consequently, the sources of air pollution—is
concentrated in urban areas in the southwest part of the country.
Forest covers 72 percent of the country,
making Finland the most densely forested European country. The government
regulates the timber industry to maintain the country’s valuable forest
resources, and Finland sustains a remarkably low rate of deforestation each
year.
With more than 60,000 lakes, Finland has
vast areas of wetlands, which provide critical habitat for many bird and animal
species. During the 20th century, Finland’s wetlands diminished considerably, in
part as a result of peat mining and of draining for agriculture. Most of
Finland’s lakes are shallow, making them particularly susceptible to damage from
acid rain.
III | PEOPLE |
Ethnic Finns constitute about 93 percent of
the population. People of Swedish descent make up about 6 percent. About 2,500
Saami inhabit the Arctic lands of the far north. Other minority groups,
including Russians, make up less than 1 percent of Finland’s population.
Immigration to Finland increased significantly beginning in the 1990s.
Nevertheless, foreign-born residents constitute only about 2 percent of the
total population, making Finland the most ethnically homogenous country in the
European Union (EU).
The Finns are a people of unknown geographic
origin. They have lived in Finland and in neighboring parts of Russia, Estonia,
and Latvia for several thousand years. The Saami, a formerly nomadic people,
occupy Saamiland—an area encompassing the northernmost portions of Norway,
Sweden, Finland, and the Kola Peninsula of Russia.
The Swedes, a Scandinavian people who
controlled Finland from the 13th century until the early 19th century, greatly
influenced the development of Finnish culture and traditions. In the Ahvenanmaa
archipelago and in some areas along the southwestern coast the people are still
of mainly Swedish ancestry. Throughout the rest of the country, Finns and Swedes
have intermingled and are generally indistinguishable.
The population of Finland is 5,244,749 (2008
estimate). A density of 17 persons per sq km (45 per sq mi) makes Finland one of
the most sparsely inhabited countries in Europe. Some 61 percent of the
population is urban. More than two-thirds of the population resides in the
southern third of the country. Oulu, in west central Finland, is the only city
with a population exceeding 100,000 that is not located in the south.
A | Language and Religion |
Finnish and Swedish are both official
languages in Finland. About 93 percent of the population speaks Finnish, a
Finno-Ugric language (see Finnish Language). About 6 percent of the
people speak Swedish (see Swedish Language). The Saami speak Saami, a
dialect of Finnish.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church of
Finland is the principal national church. Its members make up 86 percent of the
population. A small and declining minority of Finns (about 1 percent) belong to
the Finnish Orthodox Church, still a national church (see Orthodox
Church). Freedom of worship is guaranteed to all faiths.
B | Principal Cities |
There are many small cities and towns in
Finland but only five with populations exceeding 100,000. Helsinki, (Helsingfors
in Swedish) is the largest, with a population of 564,521 (2006 estimate).
Located on the southern coast, it is the national capital and the political,
commercial, educational, and cultural center of Finland. It is an important
industrial city and port.
The next three largest cities are Espoo
(227,472), Tampere (Tammerfors in Swedish) (202,932), and Turku (Åbo in Swedish)
(174,824). Turku is an education center and major port, and it served as
Finland’s capital city until 1812. Tampere is a major manufacturing city and a
center of Finland’s important telecommunications and information technology
industries.
C | Education |
Schooling is free and compulsory in
Finland between the ages of 7 and 16. Virtually all citizens are literate. In
addition to regular primary and secondary schools, Finland has an extensive
adult education program consisting of folk high schools, folk academies, and
workers’ institutes. The adult education schools are operated privately or by
municipalities or provinces and receive state subsidies.
C1 | Elementary and Secondary Schools |
Compulsory education consists of six
years of primary schooling and three years of secondary schooling. In the 2000
school year 392,200 children attended 3,851 primary schools, and 493,200
students went to secondary schools. Finland maintains a system of secondary
vocational education with schools of commerce, arts and crafts, domestic
science, trade, agriculture, and technology.
C2 | Universities and Colleges |
The Finnish institutes of higher
learning include 13 universities and several colleges and teacher-training
schools. The largest of the universities is the University of Helsinki.
Originally established at Åbo in 1640, the university was moved to Helsinki in
1828. Among the other major institutions of higher learning are the University
of Turku (1920), the Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration
(1911), the University of Tampere (1966), and the University of Oulu
(1958).
D | Culture |
For centuries, Finns sang their
traditional epic poems to the accompaniment of the zither-like kantele. They
decorated traditional handicrafts such as wood carvings and rugs with spirals,
swastikas (an ancient symbol), and other simple, geometric designs. After the
conquest of the Finnish tribes by Sweden beginning in the 12th century, the
indigenous culture was largely dominated by Swedish influences, although the
ancient folk traditions continued. Among the educated, Swedish culture
predominated. Swedish was spoken and, with rare exceptions, was the language of
literature and government administration.
Because the styles of Swedish art and
architecture were largely derivative, many Finnish buildings and works of art
reflected Italian, Flemish, German, and other European influences. In the 19th
century, however, educated Finns began to revive the folk traditions of their
country. At the same time, a national literature in the Finnish language
emerged, and Finnish styles appeared increasingly in art and architecture. The
sauna, a steam bath produced by pouring water over heated rocks, is a Finnish
invention.
D1 | Libraries and Museums |
The Finns are a book-loving people, and
libraries and museums are an integral part of their culture. The Helsinki City
Library (1860) holds more than 2 million volumes. The Helsinki University
Library, with nearly 3 million volumes, serves as a national library. Altogether
Finland has more than 1,500 libraries and more than 300 museums throughout the
country. The National Museum of Finland (1893), at Helsinki, contains Finnish,
Finno-Ugrian, and comparative ethnographical collections, as well as an
archaeological department. Other museums include the Mannerheim, the Municipal,
and the Athenaeum at Helsinki and the Art Museum at Åbo.
D2 | Literature |
See Finnish Literature.
D3 | Music |
Finland possesses a wealth of folk
music and a large body of church music, the former amassed since ancient times
and the latter developed since the acceptance of Christianity by the Finns in
the 12th century. During the Reformation, Gregorian chant and other existing
vocal church music, previously composed to Latin texts, was adapted to the
Finnish language.
The cultivation of secular music began
in the 17th century. An amateur orchestra was formed in the former Finnish
capital, Turku, and in the mid-17th century music was made part of the
curriculum of the university at Åbo.
The development of Finnish art music
began about the middle of the 19th century, mainly as a result of the works and
teaching of two German-born musicians, composer Fredrik Pacius and conductor and
collector of Finnish folk songs Richard Friedrich Faltin. Martin Wegelius, the
first important native-born composer, also significantly influenced the
development of Finnish art music as director of the Helsinki Conservatory. His
contemporary, the Finnish composer Robert Kajanus, introduced Finnish music to
Western European audiences as conductor of the Helsinki Municipal
Orchestra.
Until the late 19th century the
dominant influence on Finnish composers was that of German music. Pacius,
Faltin, Wegelius, and Kajanus all cultivated Finnish folk music in their work,
but it was Jean Sibelius, the student of Kajanus, who created a truly national
musical style and won international recognition for Finnish music. One of the
most famous compositions of Sibelius, Finlandia (1899; revised 1900), is
based on the Kalevala, a national epic poem of Finland. The Russian
rulers of Finland banned the composition because it aroused Finnish
patriotism.
The Finnish National Opera House in
Helsinki is the home of the Finnish National Opera and the Finnish National
Ballet. Finland has produced many operas of distinction in recent years by
composers such as Aulis Sallinen, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Erik Bergman, and
Joonas Kookonen. After Finland became independent in 1917, modern Finnish
composers grew increasingly interested in a variety of modern trends. See
also Folk Music.
E | Visual Arts |
In the visual arts, the Finns have made
notable contributions to handicrafts and industrial design. Finland’s best-known
sculptor of the 20th century was Wäinö Aaltonen, noted for his monumental
sculptures and busts. Finnish architecture is famous around the world. Among
20th century architects to win international recognition are Eliel Saarinen, who
designed the celebrated railroad station in Helsinki and many other public
works, and Alvar Aalto, who helped bring the functionalist style to
Finland.
IV | ECONOMY |
Finland has a highly industrialized economy
based on abundant forest resources, metalworking and engineering, and high
technology, especially the large telecommunications sector. Finns enjoy a high
standard of living, and the nation’s business climate is considered highly
competitive. Trade is central to Finland’s economy. Major exports, including
wood products, metals, and electronic goods, account for about one-third of
Finland’s gross domestic product (GDP). Apart from timber and some minerals,
Finland is highly dependent on imports of raw materials and energy.
Finland voided its longstanding friendship
treaty with the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, following the collapse of that
country. In 1992 Finland applied for membership in the European Community (EC, a
predecessor of the European Union, or EU), becoming a full member in 1995. Finns
have readily embraced closer integration with Europe, setting them somewhat
apart from Denmark and Sweden, the other Nordic EU member states. In 2002
Finland replaced its national currency with the euro, the single currency
of the EU. In doing so, Finland became the only Nordic country to adopt the
euro.
A | Agriculture |
Climactic conditions and the lack of good
soils greatly limit the amount of land available for cultivation. Nearly all
land suitable for farming is found in the fertile coastal regions of the
southwest. Only 7 percent of the total land area of Finland is under
cultivation. The large majority of the farms are less than 20 hectares (49
acres) in size.
Dairy farming is the principal
agricultural activity. Hay and other fodder crops are grown to feed dairy
cattle, beef cattle, sheep, and other livestock. The principal food crops are
wheat (grown mainly in the Ahvenanmaa archipelago), rye, barley, oats, potatoes,
and sugar beets. In colder northern regions, the land is used mainly for grazing
sheep and cattle.
B | Forestry and Fishing |
Forests, which cover more than 70 percent
of Finland, have long provided a major source of materials for Finland’s wood
and wood products industries. The most productive and accessible forests lie in
the central and southeastern parts of the country. A majority of the forest
lands are owned by private individuals, rather than by large corporations or the
government. Throughout much of Finland, timber is cut during the winter months,
and in the spring it is floated down rivers and lakes to sawmills.
Fishing, although important for domestic
consumption, accounts for a small share of foreign trade. More than one-third of
the total catch typically comes from inland waters.
C | Mining |
Finland’s mineral resources are used
mainly to supply the nation’s metalworking industry. Finland holds significant
deposits of copper and produced 15,500 metric tons in 2004. Zinc production was
37,200 metric tons. Silver mines yielded 33 metric tons. Chromite, lead, nickel,
and gold are also mined.
D | Manufacturing |
The pulp, paper, and woodworking
industries account for a significant share of the Finnish manufacturing output.
Other manufactured goods include heavy machinery and transportation equipment,
metals, engineering products (including computers, software, electronic
components, and telecommunications equipment), printed goods, food products and
beverages, textiles and clothing, chemicals, and glass and ceramics. The Finnish
company Nokia is one of the world’s largest telecommunications manufacturer,
producing mobile telephones, digital networking hardware, and other equipment.
E | Currency and Banking |
The monetary unit of Finland is the single
currency of the European Union (EU), the euro (0.80 euros equal U.S. $1;
2006 average). The euro was introduced on January 1, 1999, for electronic
transfers and accounting purposes only, and Finland’s national currency, the
markka, was used for other purposes. On January 1, 2002, euro-denominated
coins and bills went into circulation, and the markka ceased to be legal tender.
As a participant in the single currency,
Finland must follow economic policies established by the European Central Bank
(ECB). The ECB is located in Frankfurt, Germany, and is responsible for all EU
monetary policies, which include setting interest rates and regulating the money
supply. On January 1, 1999, control over Finnish monetary policy was transferred
from the Bank of Finland to the ECB. After the transfer, the Bank of Finland
joined the national banks of the other EU countries that adopted the euro as
part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB).
F | Transportation |
A system of canals, connecting Finland’s
lakes with one another and with the Gulf of Finland, provides cheap and
efficient transport for the forest industry; about 6,600 km (about 4,100 mi) of
inland waterways are navigable. Railroad lines have a combined length of 5,732
km (3,562 mi), owned and operated by the state. Finland has about 78,158 km
(48,565 mi) of roads, 65 percent of them paved. Finnair, Finland’s biggest
carrier and national airline, provides domestic and international flights.
G | Communications |
The government controls domestic telegraph
services and operates the Finnish Broadcasting Company (Yleisradio) which
broadcasts most of the radio and television programs of Finland. Two privately
owned television stations offer programming that is available to most Finnish
households.
Finland is home to one of the world’s most
advanced telecommunications sectors. Finland’s dense network of telephone lines
is entirely digital. In 1998 Finland became the first nation in the world in
which mobile cellular telephone subscriptions outnumbered fixed-line telephone
connections. Newspapers are privately owned and reflect a broad spectrum of
opinion. Daily newspapers number about 53.
V | GOVERNMENT |
Finland is a democratic republic. It has a
parliamentary form of government that divides executive power between the
president and the prime minister. Finland is governed under a constitution
adopted on March 1, 2000. The previous constitution was adopted on July 17,
1919, shortly after Finland’s declaration of independence from Russia. All
citizens who have reached 18 years of age can vote.
A | Executive |
The president of Finland, who is elected to
a six-year term by direct popular vote, is the head of state. Under the 1919
constitution, the president was responsible for national security and foreign
affairs and also appointed the Council of State (cabinet) and the prime
minister; the prime minister and cabinet were responsible for domestic policy
making. The present constitution, adopted in March 2000, reduced the power of
the president and gave more authority to the prime minister and cabinet. Today,
the parliament elects the prime minister, who is then officially appointed by
the president. The prime minister nominates cabinet members for
appointment.
The new constitution also requires the
president to work more closely with the prime minister and cabinet on foreign
policy issues. The prime minister’s responsibility for Finland’s relations with
the European Union (EU) is a significant example of this.
B | Legislature |
The Finnish parliament is a unicameral body
known as the Eduskunta (Riksdag in Swedish). Its 200 members are
popularly elected on a proportional basis for a term of up to four years.
Members of the Eduskunta may initiate legislation, override presidential
vetoes, or bring about the resignation of the cabinet and prime minister. The
president may dissolve the Eduskunta and call for new elections at the request
of the prime minister.
C | Political Parties |
Finland’s system of proportional
representation encourages the formation of many small political parties. Nearly
all governments are coalition governments. Historically, the most important
political parties are the Finnish Social Democratic Party (SDP, formed in 1899),
advocating state ownership of certain essential industries; the Center Party
(KESK, 1906), which has traditionally derived its support from rural interests
and advocates free enterprise; the Left Alliance (LA, 1990), formed by the 1990
merger of the Finnish People’s Democratic League (1944) and the Communist Party
of Finland (1918); the National Coalition Party (KOK, 1918), an advocate of
private enterprise; the Swedish People’s Party (SFP, 1906), representing the
Swedish-speaking minority in Finland; and the Green League, an environmentalist
party.
D | Local Government |
Finland is divided into five mainland
provinces and the island province of Åland (Ahvenanmaa), which enjoys home-rule
and keeps its own, distinct flag. Residents of Åland province are nearly all
Swedish-speaking. The mainland provinces are Eastern Finland (Itä-Suomi),
Western Finland (Länsi-Suomi), Southern Finland (Etelä-Suomi), Oulu, and Lappi.
Each mainland province is administered by a governor who is appointed by the
president. Åland is administered by a provincial council that is directly
elected by residents; the council shares governing power with the governor.
Below the provincial level are cities,
townships, and communes. Each is administered by municipal or communal councils
elected by proportional representation.
E | Judiciary |
The local court system of Finland is
divided into municipal courts in towns and district courts in rural areas.
Appellate courts are located in Åbo, Vaasa, Kuopio, Kuovila, Rovaniemi, and
Helsinki. The supreme court, which sits at Helsinki, is the final court of
appeal for all civil and criminal cases.
F | Health and Welfare |
The Finnish social-welfare system provides
unemployment, sickness, disability, and old-age insurance; family and child
allowances; and war-invalid compensation. The National Health Act of 1972
provided for the establishment of health centers in all municipalities, and also
provided for the elimination of doctor’s fees.
G | Defense |
Military service for up to 12 months is
compulsory for all males 17 years of age or over. Since 1995, women have been
allowed to serve as volunteers. Finland has an army, a navy, and an air force,
but the armed forces are restricted by the Paris peace treaty of 1947 to maximum
personnel of 41,900; in 2004 about 28,300 people were in the armed services.
Reserves total about 400,000. In 1994 Finland joined the Partnership for Peace
program as a first step toward full membership in the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO).
VI | HISTORY |
The earliest traces of human habitation in
Finland date from about 8000 bc,
when the most recent of the Ice Ages was retreating. These ancient hunters and
gatherers probably arrived from the east. Pottery making characterized another
type of Stone Age culture (starting 3000? bc) known as the Comb-Ceramic; its
practitioners were of a different origin. The succeeding Battle-Ax culture
(1800-1600 bc) may have been
brought to Finland by an Indo-European people from a more southerly Baltic
region. These people were able navigators and also introduced agriculture. A
merger of the Battle-Ax people and the previous dwellers resulted in the
so-called Kiukainen culture (1600-1200 bc).
The Bronze Age began in Finland about 1300
bc. During the first part of the
pre-Christian era and the following centuries, people speaking one of the
Finno-Ugric languages migrated in from the east and from Estonia in the south.
This period marks the introduction of the Iron Age in Finland.
A | The Viking Age |
During the age of the Vikings the Finns
became exposed to both eastern and western influences. Vikings from Sweden
colonized the Åland Islands (Ahvenanmaa in Finnish) in the 6th century ad as a base for their journeys of
pillage and trade into Russia as far south as the Black Sea. Although they did
not actually participate in these Viking expeditions, the Finns benefited by the
growing contact and the establishment of trading colonies in their country by
merchants from Sweden and the island of Gotland. At the end of the 11th century
three Finnish tribes had spread as far north as the 62nd parallel: the Finns
proper in the southwest, the Tavastians in the interior lake district, and the
Karelians to the east. The Saami were also living in the wilderness to the
north. No unified government or state existed.
B | The Swedish Conquest |
The conversion of the Finnish tribes to
Christianity was initiated by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches of
Sweden. It proceeded for more than two centuries, from 1050 to about 1300. The
Saami became Christians at an even later date.
According to tradition, Nicholas
Breakspear, an English cardinal who became Pope Adrian IV, encouraged the
Swedish king Eric to cross the Baltic with a strong force in 1155. His goal was
not only to convert the heathen but also to gain economic and political ends.
King Eric defeated the Finnish tribes but was not able to make his conquest
permanent. An English clergyman, Henry, who had been bishop of Uppsala in
Sweden, remained in Finland. He was slain within the year and subsequently
became the patron saint of the city of Åbo (Turku in Finnish) and of all the
Finns.
A papal bull of 1172 (or 1171) proposed
that the Swedes hold Finland in subjection by building fortresses with permanent
garrisons; in time, the Swedes subdued the Finns and the Tavastians, achieved
control of Finland’s foreign trade, and established the Christian religion. The
church was placed on a firm foundation when an episcopal see was established at
Åbo in 1209 (a monastery of the Dominicans was founded there in 1249). In 1216
the pope confirmed Swedish title to those parts of Finland that were already
conquered and also to mission territories in the east and north. A solid basis
for Swedish rule was laid by the Earl Birger, who dispatched a “crusade” in 1249
and built a fortress in Tavastia in central Finland as a protection against
Russian incursions. When the ruler of Novgorod in Russia invaded Tavastia again
in 1292, the Swedes sent a force into Karelia as far as the Neva River. A treaty
of 1323 divided Karelia between Sweden and Novgorod.
In 1362 the Finnish people were given the
same rights within the monarchy as the people of Sweden. When Queen Margaret I
established the Kalmar Union in 1397, Finland was drawn into the dynastic
politics of the Scandinavian countries. All during the 15th and 16th centuries
most of Finland was administered as fiefs by Swedish noblemen, who levied heavy
taxes on the people. Numerous Swedish farmers, fishers, and merchants settled in
Finland at this time.
C | A Swedish Duchy |
King Gustav I Vasa attempted to institute
economic and administrative reforms. At the Diet of Västerås in 1527 the Swedes
essentially broke with Rome, although they did not formally accept the doctrines
of Martin Luther until several years later. During this time much land and
property in Finland was taken over by the Crown. During a war (1555-1557)
against Ivan of Russia, Finland was made a Swedish duchy and given as a fief to
the future John III. In the 25 years between 1570 and 1595 Finland was involved
in constant warfare between Sweden and Russia.
Under Charles IX the entire administration
of Finland was concentrated in Stockholm, and a basis was laid for further
material progress. Under Charles’s successor, Gustav II Adolph, protracted wars
were fought against Denmark, Poland, and Russia. War with Russia ended with the
Peace of Stolbova (1617), which pushed Finnish boundaries farther east into
Ingria.
Great numbers of Finnish soldiers fought
for the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), which also resulted in
heavy taxation on the populace. Another war with Russia (1656-1661) exacted
great suffering but ended with a territorial status quo. The “reduction”
(reversion to the Crown of lands that had been given to nobles as compensation
for services rendered) of Charles XI benefited Finnish farmers to some extent,
but crop failures in 1695 through 1697 caused the death of one-fourth of the
population. This was followed by the tragic years of the Great Northern War
(1700-1721), during which the Russians occupied Finland; at the Peace of Nystadt
(1721) it lost large areas in the east. During another war with Russia
(1741-1743) more territory was ceded; yet one more conflict in 1788 to 1790 left
the situation unchanged. The idea of Finnish independence from Sweden, however,
began to take hold.
D | Russian Rule, 1809 to 1917 |
A year after his agreement with French
emperor Napoleon I at Tilsit (see Tilsit, Treaty of) in 1807, Tsar
Alexander I attacked and occupied Finland. In March 1809 he proclaimed it a
grand duchy of the Russian Empire but granted his new subjects all their old
rights and privileges. In the Peace of Hamina (Swedish Fredrikshamn) in
September, Sweden formally ceded all Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia; at
the same time, however, the Karelian areas ceded to Russia before 1809 were
returned to Finland.
The country was henceforth ruled by a
Russian governor-general, with a so-called senate, which sat in the new capital
of Helsinki, acting as a cabinet. In spite of despotic rule by some
governors-general, much economic and cultural progress was made during the
middle decades of the century. After 1820 a nationalist awakening took place
among the population, centered mainly on a resurgence of the Finnish language.
In 1863 the Lantdag (parliament), which had not met since 1809, was
reconstituted, and in the same year the Finnish language was granted equal
status with Swedish.
Toward the end of the century a shift in
Russian policy was manifest. In 1894 the use of the Russian language was
introduced in some aspects of government administration, and five years later
all legislation was placed in Russian hands. During the following years the
citizens of Finland lost many of their constitutional rights. The Russo-Japanese
War of 1904-1905 slowed the process of Russification somewhat. In 1906 a new
parliamentary system was adopted, a one-chamber Eduskunta (parliament) created,
and the right to vote given to all men and women over the age of 25. Another
wave of Russification swept Finland in 1908, culminating in the Equal Rights Law
of 1912, which gave Russians the same rights in Finland as the country’s own
population.
Finland was not directly involved in World
War I (1914-1918), although Russian troops were garrisoned in the country.
During the turmoil of the Russian Revolution in 1917, a newly elected Finnish
parliament took advantage of the situation and on November 15 assumed “all
powers formerly held by the Tsar-Grand Duke.” Three weeks later, on December 6,
it voted in favor of an independent republic. The nascent Soviet government had
no choice but to recognize Finnish sovereignty.
E | Independence, Civil War, and the Interwar Period |
Many problems faced the new republic,
among them famine, widespread unemployment, and a stagnant economy. Moreover,
the population was now sharply polarized between the radical socialists and the
liberals and other groups. Meanwhile, two armies—the Red Guards and the White
Guards—were forming in the country.
The mounting friction soon erupted in
violence. On January 28, 1918, the Red Guards, reacting to a government order to
expel all Russian troops, spread a “Red revolution” across Finland, plundering
and killing civilians. The government fled to Vaasa, and resistance to the Reds
was organized by General Carl G. Mannerheim. He headed the White Guards, who,
assisted by German troops, captured Helsinki and, in turn, instituted a wave of
terror against the Red revolutionaries. After the country had been pacified, the
parliament in July 1919 adopted a new republican constitution. Kaarlo J.
Ståhlberg, a liberal, was elected first president of Finland.
Various coalition cabinets made up of
nonsocialist parties ruled during the 1920s and 1930s. The Communist Party was
declared illegal, but Social Democrats made some progress. A nonaggression
treaty was concluded with the Soviet Union in 1932, and after 1935 the
Scandinavian orientation of Finnish foreign policy was apparent.
F | The Winter and Continuation Wars |
At the outbreak of World War II in 1939,
Finland declared its neutrality. The Soviet Union, however, anxious to secure
the approaches to Leningrad, demanded that Finland cede certain territory in
return for parts of Soviet-controlled Karelia. When the Finns refused, Soviet
armies invaded Finland on November 30, 1939, initiating the Winter War. The
Finns, under Mannerheim, fiercely resisted and won some astonishing victories.
But superior Soviet power was decisive, and the Finns were forced to concede.
See Russo-Finnish War. The peace terms imposed on Finland gave 10 percent
of Finnish territory, including the Karelian Isthmus, to the Soviets.
When Germany attacked the USSR in June
1941, the Finns again proclaimed their neutrality, although 75,000 German troops
were based in northern Finland. German use of Finnish territory led the Russians
to bomb Finnish cities. Finland then declared war against the USSR, emphasizing
that the Finns were not allies of Germany but merely co-belligerents.
Nevertheless, the United Kingdom declared war on Finland in December 1941, and
the United States broke relations. After a prolonged standstill, Marshal
Mannerheim was installed as president in August 1944, with a mandate to secure
peace. An armistice was signed on September 19, 1944. Finland ceded the Petsamo
area in the north and was forced to lease its Porkkala Peninsula in the Gulf of
Finland to the USSR. Reparations were set at $300 million.
G | Postwar Period |
Finland signed its final peace treaty with
the USSR in 1947. Reparations, in the form of goods and raw materials, were
fully paid by 1952. In 1956 gave up its lease on the Porkkala Peninsula and
returned it to Finland. The new relationship with the USSR led Finland to
legalize the Communist Party and enter a Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and
Mutual Assistance (1948; voided in January 1992).
Finland experienced serious hardship in
the immediate aftermath of the war. It had lost productive territories, its
economy was in shambles, and it had to resettle about 450,000 refugees from the
lands ceded to the USSR. However, within a short time, Finland’s government
reorganized the industrial sector to meet the heavy burden of war reparations.
Housing was built for the refugees, many of whom went to work in factories.
Wetlands were drained to make available new farmland, and many existing farms
were subdivided.
G1 | Foreign Policy |
The main thrust of Finnish foreign
policy until the collapse of Soviet domination in Eastern Europe in the early
1990s was strict international neutrality and friendly relations with the USSR.
At the same time, Finland maintained its independent status. This policy, the
so-called Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line, was named for the postwar president Juho K.
Paasikivi, who initiated it, and his successor, Urho Kekkonen, who broadened
it.
Perhaps more than any other person, Urho
Kekkonen put his stamp on Finnish postwar politics. As prime minister from 1950
to 1956 (with two brief intervals) and president from 1956 to 1981, he eased
Soviet fears of an unfriendly Finland and displayed a finely tuned sensitivity
to Soviet wishes that Finns refrain from activities deemed detrimental to Soviet
interests. At the same time, Finland remained firmly oriented toward Scandinavia
and the West. Still, many Western observers remained uneasy with Finland’s
friendliness toward the USSR, using the derogatory term “Finlandization” to
describe it.
In 1961 Finland became an associate
member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and in 1967 it joined the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Additional trade
agreements continued to strengthen Finland’s economic relations with the West.
G2 | Internal Politics |
None of Finland’s political parties
enjoys majority support, and coalition governments are therefore the rule. Most
postwar cabinets have been headed by Social Democratic Party (SDP) or Center
Party leaders. In January 1982 Mauno Koivisto, a Social Democrat, was elected to
succeed Urho Kekkonen as president. The SDP scored gains in 1983 parliamentary
voting, but the elections of March 1987 brought to power a coalition government
made up of Conservatives and the SDP. It was the first time Conservatives found
themselves in government in more than 20 years. Conservative leader Harry
Holkeri became prime minister. President Koivisto easily won reelection in
February 1988 to a second six-year term.
Holkeri’s coalition suffered losses at
the polls in the March 1991 elections, when the Center Party edged out the SDP
as the single largest party in the 200-seat Eduskunta. The SDP chose to go into
opposition, and Center Party leader Esko Aho formed a majority nonsocialist
coalition government.
H | European Relations |
After the collapse of the USSR, Finland
restructured its economic policies to build relationships with the former Soviet
republics and a stronger orientation toward Europe. In March 1992 Finland
formally applied for membership in the European Community (now called the
European Union, or EU). In February 1994 Martti Ahtisaari of the SDP was elected
president. In May the European Parliament endorsed Finland for EU membership and
in November Finnish voters approved their country’s inclusion in the EU. Also in
May, Finland joined the Partnership for Peace program as a first step toward
full membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), abandoning a
longtime policy of strict neutrality. In January 1995 Finland, along with
Austria and Sweden, officially joined the EU.
In elections in March 1995 the SDP
emerged as the strongest party in the Eduskunta, winning 63 seats. The SDP then
formed a coalition with four other parties, and SDP chairman Paavo Lipponen was
named premier. Finland took another step toward integration with Europe in May
1998, when it officially agreed to replace its national currency, the
markka, with a new single European currency, the euro. The euro
was introduced in 1999 and entirely replaced the Finnish currency in January
2002.
I | Recent Events |
In national elections in March 1999 the
ruling coalition headed by Lipponen and the SDP was returned to power, despite a
poor showing by the SDP that substantially reduced the coalition’s majority in
parliament. In February 2000 Social Democrat Tarja Halonen was elected Finland’s
first female president. In a close election that was decided in a runoff,
Halonen defeated former prime minister Esko Aho of the Center Party. Halonen
replaced Martti Ahtisaari, who did not seek reelection.
In the March 2003 national elections the
Center Party emerged as the largest party in the Eduskunta with 55 seats. The
following month the Center Party reached an agreement with the SDP, which won 53
seats, and the small Swedish People’s Party, to form a coalition government.
Center Party leader Anneli Jäätteenmäki succeeded Lipponen as prime minister and
in so doing became Finland’s first female to hold the post. The new coalition
government was dubbed the “red-earth” alliance to reflect the SDP’s labor
background and the Center Party’s agrarian roots.
In June 2003, within months of coming to
power, Jäätteenmäki resigned following allegations that she had used classified
documents—purported to reveal her predecessor’s sympathy for the March 2003
U.S.-led invasion of Iraq—during the election campaign. Matti Vanhanen, defense
minister and the Center Party’s deputy leader, replaced Jäätteenmäki as prime
minister. In early 2006 Halonen narrowly won reelection as president.
Parliamentary elections in March 2007 gave the Center Party 51 seats, only 1
more than its rival, the conservative National Coalition Party. The SDP was
reduced to 45 seats. Vanhanen faced difficult talks on forming a new coalition
government.
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