Confucius

I

INTRODUCTION

Confucius (551 or 552-479 bc), Chinese philosopher and educator, one of the most important individuals in Chinese history, and one of the most influential figures in world history. His name in Chinese is Kongzi (also spelled K’ung-tzu). Confucianism; Chinese Philosophy.

II

CONFUCIUS’S LIFE

Much about the life of Confucius is uncertain. He was born in the state of Lu, in what is now Shandong (Shantung) province, during the second half of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1045?-256 bc). China was then divided into a number of states. Although these states were under the authority of a single Zhou king, they functioned quite independently and often engaged in disastrous wars.

Confucius’s father apparently died when Confucius was young. His death left the family in poverty, so that Confucius had to work at menial tasks as a youth to help support the family. Somehow, he managed to obtain an education. As an adult he impressed others with his learning and good character, so that he began to acquire students and disciples. Confucius’s experiences growing up may have contributed to his willingness to instruct any student, regardless of wealth or social class, and to judge others on their actual character, rather than on their social standing.

Confucius was eventually appointed magistrate of justice in Lu. He resigned, apparently in protest over government corruption. After his resignation Confucius spent the next few years traveling through various states in China, hoping to find a ruler who would put his philosophy into practice. During his travels he came close to starvation at one point and was almost murdered on another occasion. Failing to find the ruler he was looking for, Confucius returned to Lu. He was given only a minor position in government, but several of his disciples attained high office in Lu and elsewhere.

After his death Confucius’s disciples collected his sayings in a work now known as the Lunyu (Lun-yü, Analects), a book in 20 sections. Scholars generally agree that the last 5 sections were composed long after the time of Confucius’s immediate disciples. There is intense disagreement over how much of the first 15 sections can reliably be attributed to Confucius or his students.

III

CONFUCIUS’S TEACHINGS

Confucius shared a belief, common in his time, that China had in the past enjoyed almost utopian periods of peace and prosperity under the rule of “sage kings.” Confucius held that these wise kings possessed de (te), meaning “virtue” or a sort of charisma that comes from being a good person and that makes others want to follow one. Consequently, the sage kings were able to govern primarily through the power of setting a good ethical example, rather than through military force or criminal penalties.

According to Confucius a good person has ren (or jen), translated as “humaneness” or “benevolence,” which is the summation of all other virtues. For example, a person with ren will always do what is appropriate for his social role. This yi (i, or “righteousness”) involves being obedient to one’s ruler and one’s parents. Obedience is not blind, however. Confucius stresses that we must encourage our superiors to act ethically and resign our position if the ruler persists in unethical behavior. A ren person does what is right regardless of the danger to himself or herself and regardless of the hardship this requires. This person also is faithful in his words: honest, but not glib. Finally, all virtues have to be applied in a flexible manner that shows an appreciation of specific circumstances and the people in them.

Confucius discouraged his students from worrying about the afterlife. Instead, he encouraged them to live in harmony and to help other people through government service, teaching, or just being a good family member. Confucius thought that there was great joy to be found in everyday family life, participating in communal activities, enjoying music, and spending time with one’s friends.

Confucius stressed three institutions that both express and help cultivate the virtues: rituals, education, and the family. Rituals can include everything from funeral ceremonies to sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors to the proper way to dress, eat dinner, or treat a guest. Confucius believed that performing rituals with a spirit of reverence was not only a sign of virtue, but could also help cultivate the virtues in oneself. He thought that there was only one correct set of rituals: those handed down by the sage kings of the past. Failing to perform the correct rituals, or performing them without proper reverence, was both a cause and a symptom of bad character and social decay.

In educating his disciples Confucius stressed the Shijing (Shih ching, “Book of Songs”), an anthology of poems from a variety of sources that was already old and revered by his era. He encouraged his disciples to find metaphorical meanings with ethical significance in the poems. For example, a poem that describes a team of horses as “never deviating” from their path should be read as a metaphor for following the way of the sage kings. Confucius was a demanding teacher who expected his students to think carefully about what he taught them and to apply it in their own lives.

Confucius’s commitment to the family is revealed in a famous anecdote in which a ruler brags to Confucius about how someone in his state is so upright that he had turned in his own father for being a thief. Confucius suggests that he prefers the standard in his own state, where fathers and sons protect each other. One of the reasons that the family is so important, according to Confucius, is that we first learn to love and respect others in our family. This respect becomes the basis of virtue in later life.

IV

THE CONFUCIAN TRADITION

Confucius described himself as a “transmitter and not an innovator,” because he believed that all his teachings were nothing more than the way of the ancient sages. However, he was more original than he realized, and he started one of the great intellectual traditions. This tradition is known in China as the rujia (ju-chia, or “School of the Scholars”) but is called Confucianism in the West. Confucians all try to follow the Way of Confucius as they understand it, but they often disagree sharply over what this way is. For example, Confucius said almost nothing about human nature, but his later followers debated whether human nature was good, as Mencius argued in the 4th century bc, or bad, as Xunzi (Hsün-tzu) claimed in the 3rd century bc.

Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), a philosopher who lived in the 12th century ad, influenced thinking on Confucius for centuries. His views were adopted by the government and became the official state orthodoxy. Zhu Xi identified the Sishu (Four Books) as the core of Confucian philosophy. They comprised the Analects, the Mencius (Book of Mencius) by a follower of Confucius, the Greater Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. The latter two presumably contain Confucius’s philosophical utterances, systematically arranged and with commentaries by his disciples. Zhu Xi’s commentaries on these works interpreted them in the light of one another and in terms of a philosophical system that was influenced by Zen Buddhism. This interpretation continues to influence how many people understand Confucius even today.

During China’s Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, Confucius was condemned by the Communist government as an element of China’s “feudal” past. However, economic and social changes in China since the 1980s have led to renewed interest in and respect for Confucius and Confucianism.

From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows no interest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubt continue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals.