I | INTRODUCTION |
California, state in the western United States,
bordering the Pacific Ocean. The third largest state in the Union, California
covers an area of great physical diversity in which uplands dominate the
landscape. The mountains, hills, ridges, and peaks of California flank the
coastline, rise to nearly 4,600 m (15,000 ft) in the towering Sierra Nevada,
encircle the great fertile basin of the Central Valley, and separate the desert
into innumerable basins. However, despite the physical dominance and economic
value of the uplands, California’s urban areas and economic production are
concentrated in the valleys and lowlands, such as in the huge metropolitan
region centered on Los Angeles, the state’s largest and the nation’s second
largest city. Manufacturing, agriculture, and related activities are the
principal sources of income. They are based in large part on the state’s wealth
of natural resources, its productive farmlands, its large and highly skilled
labor force, and its ability to market its output both at home and abroad.
California’s size, complexity, and economic
productivity make it preeminently a state of superlatives. It has the lowest
point in the country, in Death Valley, and the highest U.S. peak outside of
Alaska, Mount Whitney. Among the 50 states it has the greatest number of
national parks and national forests, and the only stand of giant sequoias. Its
annual farm output is greater in value than that of any other state, and it
leads the rest of the nation in the production of many crops. It is the leading
state in volume of annual construction and manufacturing. California has more
people than any other state and more automobiles, more civil aircraft, and more
students enrolled in universities and colleges.
Between the late 1940s and late 1980s the rate
of growth and actual growth of California’s population and economy were
phenomenal compared with other states. However, this growth also gave rise to,
or aggravated, several major problems that now face Californians. Much of the
growth occurred in the dry south where water shortages must be offset by vast,
expensive public projects delivering water from the wetter north. Urban centers
extended outward into good farmland, forever removing it from food production.
In addition, as population continues to increase, California is faced with the
problem of providing its inhabitants with more schools, hospitals, water,
highways, recreational facilities, and other services.
The name California was first used to
designate the region by the Spanish expedition led by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo,
as it sailed northward along the coast from Mexico in 1542. The name itself was
probably derived from a popular Spanish novel published in 1510 in which a
fictional island paradise named California was described. The state’s official
nickname is the Golden State, referring to the gold rush, which played a central
role in California’s entry into the Union on September 9, 1850, as the 31st
state. The nickname also suggests the state’s golden fields and sunshine.
II | PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY |
California, the third largest state in the
Union, has a total area of 423,971 sq km (163,696 sq mi), including 6,926 sq km
(2,674 sq mi) of inland water and 575 sq km (222 sq mi) of coastal waters over
which it has jurisdiction. The state is roughly rectangular in shape, although
the southern two-thirds bends in a dogleg toward the east. It has a maximum
distance north to south of 1,052 km (654 mi) and an east-to-west extent of 945
km (587 mi), although even locations along the state’s eastern border are less
than 350 km (220 mi) from the ocean. California’s mean elevation is about 880 m
(2,900 ft).
Much of California lies in a geologically
unstable area, crisscrossed by fault, or fracture, lines in the Earth’s crust.
The great San Andreas Fault extends for 1,000 km (600 mi) northwestward from the
Imperial Valley to Point Arena and out to sea. This fault line has caused
several notable earthquakes in the recorded history of California. The most
widely publicized was that of April 18, 1906, which resulted in the destruction
of central San Francisco. Although major earthquakes are rare, landslides,
mudflows, minor tremors, and cracks in the ground occur regularly.
A | Natural Regions |
California lies within four major natural
regions, or physiographic provinces. They are the Pacific Border province, the
Sierra-Cascade province, the Basin and Range province, and the Lower Californian
province.
The Pacific Border province, also called the
Coastal Uplands, extends nearly the entire length of western California. It can
be subdivided into four sections, the Klamath Mountains, the Coast Ranges, the
Transverse Ranges, and the Great Central Valley.
The Klamath Mountains, partly in Oregon,
occupy the northwestern corner of California. They include a number of separate
ranges, such as the Salmon and Trinity mountains, and form a rugged forested
area that rises to 2,700 m (9,000 ft).
The Coast Ranges parallel the Pacific Coast
in a complex series of ridges and valleys. The only major low-lying pass through
the ranges is formed by San Francisco Bay and its tributary bays, as they carry
the waters of California’s largest river, the Sacramento, into the Pacific Ocean
at the Golden Gate. The principal range is the Diablo Range, which flanks the
Central Valley and rises to 1,500 m (5,000 ft) above sea level. Between the
interior Diablo Range and the coastal Santa Lucia Range lies the long Salinas
valley.
The Transverse Ranges, so named because
they run transverse or perpendicular (west to east) to the north-south oriented
Coast Ranges, extend from Point Conception, on the coast, roughly eastward to
the Mojave Desert. These generally narrow ranges increase in elevation toward
the east, where Mount San Gorgonio in the San Bernardino Mountains rises to
3,505 m (11,499 ft) above sea level. The Transverse Ranges partly enclose low
but often hilly Los Angeles and its suburbs.
The Great Central Valley is a vast
structural depression that extends from northwest to southeast for 640 km (400
mi), with an average width of 80 km (50 mi). The valley is surrounded by
mountain ranges that rise steeply from the valley floor on the west and more
gently on the east. The Central Valley, with its flat land and rich alluvial
soils, is one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world. The
northern part of the valley is called the Sacramento Valley, and the southern
part is called the San Joaquin Valley.
The Sierra-Cascade province is, in
California, a vast upland area that extends from Oregon to the Transverse
Ranges. It is subdivided into two sections, the southern Cascade Range and the
Sierra Nevada.
The southern Cascade Range, in northern
California, consists of a rugged belt of ranges that includes volcanic peaks and
extensive lava flows. Mount Shasta, which is a dormant volcano, rises to 4,317 m
(14,162 ft) above sea level. Just to the south of Lassen Volcanic National Park
the densely forested Cascades meet the Sierra Nevada.
The Sierra Nevada, nearly all of which lies
in California, is an imposing mountain barrier that extends along the eastern
edge of the Central Valley. It is primarily a vast tilted granite block, with
very steep slopes facing east and longer, gentler slopes facing west. The
highest section, known as the High Sierra, includes Mount Whitney, which rises
to 4,418 m (14,494 ft) and is the highest peak in the United States outside of
Alaska. Forests cover large areas on the lower western slopes of the Sierra
Nevada. At the southern end of the Sierra Nevada the Tehachapi Mountains curve
southwestward to join the Coast Ranges and the Transverse Ranges.
The Basin and Range province is an arid
area of mountain ranges, basins, and deserts. In California it is represented
primarily by parts of the Great Basin and Sonoran Desert sections. Within the
Great Basin lies Death Valley, whose lowest elevation, 86 m (282 ft) below sea
level, is the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere. The Sonoran Desert section
is characterized by numerous flat plains separated by low but rugged ranges. It
includes the extensive Mojave, or Mohave, Desert. Also in this province is the
Colorado Desert, roughly extensive with the Salton Trough. The trough is a
depression that extends from the Gulf of California, in Mexico, to the
Transverse Ranges in the northwest. This arid depression, rimmed by several
mountain ranges, includes the Imperial Valley, the Salton Sea, and the Coachella
Valley.
The Lower California province is a northern
extension of Mexico’s peninsula of Baja California. The province is dominated by
occasional peaks but generally rolling mountain and valley terrain of the
Peninsular Ranges. The northern end of the granitic Peninsular Ranges culminates
in Mount San Jacinto (3,293 m/10,804 ft), which overlooks the resort city of
Palm Springs to the east.
B | Rivers and Lakes |
California’s principal river systems are
formed by the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and their tributaries, which
drain the Great Central Valley. The Sacramento, the longest river within the
state, flows generally southward for 607 km (377 mi) from its source at the base
of Mount Shasta in the southern Cascade Mountains to its junction with the San
Joaquin. The Pit River is the longest tributary of the Sacramento, but shorter
tributaries, such as the Feather and American rivers, carry larger volumes of
water. The San Joaquin River rises in the Sierra Nevada near Yosemite National
Park and flows generally northward for 560 km (350 mi) to join the Sacramento
River. The Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers unite to form a large inland delta
that drains to Suisun Bay, the eastern arm of San Francisco Bay. Numerous
mountain streams descend from the Sierra Nevada to join the two rivers. A number
of short streams rise on the eastern flanks of the Coast Ranges, but they
usually run dry before reaching either river.
The rivers of the Coast Ranges in
California are relatively short, except for the 400-km (250-mi) long Klamath
River, which rises in Oregon and flows through northwestern California. Farther
south the Salinas River rises in the Coast Ranges and flows northwestward,
roughly parallel to the coast, through a broad fertile valley to Monterey
Bay.
The major river in southern California is
the Colorado River, one of the chief rivers of the western United States. It
follows the Arizona-California state line before flowing into the Gulf of
California, in Mexico.
California has several thousand lakes, most
of which are small. The largest is the Salton Sea, a salty lake in the south
that lies 71 m (233 ft) below sea level and covers 943 sq km (364 sq mi). Lake
Tahoe, high in the Sierra Nevada, is on the California-Nevada state line and is
one of the deepest lakes in the United States. Numerous other lakes have been
created by the damming of rivers. These include Folsom Reservoir on the American
River, Lake Oroville on the Feather River, and Pine Flat Reservoir on the Kings
River, all in the Sierra Nevada, and Clair Engle Lake on the Trinity River, in
the Klamath Mountains. Shasta Lake, behind Shasta Dam on the upper Sacramento
River, is the largest reservoir in the state, and along with Clair Engle and
Whiskeytown lakes, forms one of the largest national recreation areas in the
nation.
C | Coastline and Islands |
California’s coastline is 1,352 km (840 mi)
long; when all the inlets and islands are taken into account, it is 5,515 km
(3,427 mi) long. The only large indentation along the coast is formed by San
Francisco Bay and its tributary bays. The nearly landlocked bay is linked with
the ocean through the narrow Golden Gate, and it is one of the finest harbors on
the Pacific coast of North America. Other indentations include San Diego Bay,
San Pedro Bay, Monterey Bay, and Humboldt Bay.
Other than the small, rocky Farallon
Islands, which lie some 50 km (30 mi) west of the Golden Gate and which comprise
a National Wildlife Refuge, the state’s larger islands are offshore of southern
California. They are in two groups: the Santa Barbara Channel islands, which
geologically are a seaward continuation of the Transverse Ranges, and Santa
Catalina, San Clemente and San Nicolas islands, which are associated
geologically with the Peninsular Ranges. Although essentially uninhabited, the
Channel Islands form a national park and are accessed by charter boat. By
contrast, Santa Catalina, with its colorful port city of Avalon, has a permanent
resident population, as do a few other islands. With the exception of far-flung
San Clemente and San Nicolas islands, which serve as unoccupied United States
military reservations, Santa Catalina and the Channel Islands are situated 50 km
(30 mi) offshore, the former west of the densely populated Los Angeles Basin,
and the latter due south of the city of Santa Barbara. None of the islands are
large.
D | Climate |
The climate of California is characterized
by cool to mild winters and, except in the high mountains, warm to hot summers.
The year is divided into a wet season and a dry season. Precipitation falls
mainly during the period from October to April. The mountain slopes facing
westward are usually wetter than the slopes facing eastward because the
moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific are forced to condense and precipitate
their moisture as they rise over the mountains. In general, northern California
has lower temperatures and greater precipitation than southern California.
However, climatic and weather conditions in the state vary greatly from place to
place and from year to year.
The prevailing winds of all of California
are the westerlies, so-named because they blow from the west toward the east.
The westerlies not only bring winter storms and eagerly awaited precipitation to
the state, but throughout the year they drive the nation’s largest wind-power
facilities. Located at Altamont, east of San Francisco Bay, and in Tehachapi and
San Gorgonio passes, in southern California, the largest windfarms supply
several hundred thousand residents with electricity when the winds are greater
than 23 km/h (14 mph). The dry Santa Ana wind, a reversal of the prevailing
westerly pattern to an easterly or northeasterly wind, occurs predominantly in
southern California and in the fall of the year when high pressure builds over
the interior deserts and flows offshore to cells of low pressure.
In the coastal areas north of Point
Conception, July temperatures average 16°C (60°F). January temperatures are
between 4° and 10°C (40° and 50°F). Precipitation increases from 380 mm (15 in)
near Point Conception to more than 1,800 mm (70 in) at Crescent City, near the
Oregon border. Fogs are frequent along the coast, especially in summer. South of
Point Conception the coastal areas are drier and have a greater range of average
temperatures. Rainfall averages only 310 mm (12 in) at Los Angeles and 250 mm
(10 in) at San Diego. Average January temperatures are between 10° and 16°C (50°
and 60°F). July averages are generally between 21° and 27°C (70° and 80°F), but
much higher temperatures, even in the upper 30°s C (lower 100°s F) occur during
summer.
In the Central Valley, average temperatures
are 27°C (80°F) in July and 7°C (45°F) in January. Precipitation varies from
more than 760 mm (30 in) a year in the valley’s northern part to less than 150
mm (6 in) at its southern end.
In the extensive mountainous areas of
California, winters are severe. The western slopes of the Klamath Mountains, the
wettest part of the state, receive more than 2,500 mm (100 in) of precipitation
yearly. Many peaks in the Sierra Nevada support small glaciers and thus appear
snowcapped throughout the year, and in some locations the snowfall exceeds
13,000 mm (500 in), the equivalent of 1,300 mm (50 in) of rain.
The Great Basin and Mojave Desert sections
of California are extremely arid. In Death Valley, precipitation averages less
than 50 mm (2 in) a year, and in some years it never rains. These desert areas
are the hottest parts of the state and of the nation. July temperatures in Death
Valley average in the upper 30°s C (lower 100°s F), and the highest temperature
(57°C/134°F) ever recorded in the United States was taken there.
In the Central Valley the frost-free season
averages between 240 and 280 days. This long period permits the cultivation of
many crops that are sensitive to frost damage. Elsewhere in California the
growing season ranges from more than 320 days along the southern coast to less
than 120 days in the northern valleys.
E | Soils |
The most productive soils in California are
the alluvial soils of the Central Valley and of the Imperial, San Fernando,
Salinas, and Santa Clara valleys. These soils, composed of materials washed down
from the surrounding mountains, can be intensively cultivated when
irrigated.
The soils of the desert lands lack organic
matter but are rich in trace elements. Although they are productive when
irrigated, the desert lands are often used for grazing because sufficient
irrigation water is not available. Large sections of the state are covered by
soils generally not suited for cultivation because they occur in rough and
mountainous country. However, in some areas, especially in the northwest, these
soils support extensive coniferous forests.
F | Plant Life |
Forest lands cover 40 percent of
California’s land area. The most densely forested areas are the Klamath
Mountains, the Coast Ranges north of San Francisco, and the Sierra Nevada. Tree
growth is heaviest on the wet, westward-facing slopes. The coast redwood grows
in dense forests on the lower mountain slopes along the coast between the Santa
Lucia Range south of Monterey Bay and the Oregon state line (see
Sequoia). The redwood, the official state tree, grows to more than 60 m (200
ft). The world’s tallest tree is said to be a coast redwood in Redwood National
Park that is 111 m (365 ft) tall. Redwoods in California grow in pure stands and
also with Douglas fir, canoe cedar, and Port Orford cedar. Douglas fir
predominates on the slopes immediately above the redwood areas. Farther inland
the Douglas fir forests give way to a more open forest of broadleaved trees,
such as Tanoak madrone, Oregon maple, California bay tree, and several species
of oak. In the Klamath Mountains and Coast Ranges above 1,500 m (5,000 ft),
ponderosa pine predominates.
A close cousin of the redwood, the giant
sequoia grows in groves at somewhat higher elevations along the western slopes
of the Sierra Nevada in what is known as the yellow pine belt. Some giant
sequoias exceed 2,000 years of age, while some bristlecone pines in eastern
California’s White Mountains are more than 4,500 years old. These conifers,
along with some species of desert shrub such as creosote at more than twice that
age, are among the oldest living things in the world. The yellow, or ponderosa,
pine is the most valuable commercial conifer logged in the Sierra, and thrives
at elevations between 900 and 2,400 m (3,000 to 8,000 ft). Above the pine
forests are stands of red fir and Jeffrey pine. They give way above 2,700 m
(9,000 ft) to lodgepole pine, other species of pine, Engelmann spruce, and
firs.
In the Coast Ranges south of San Francisco
and on the low mountain slopes around the Central Valley, grasslands, woodlands
of mixed evergreen and broadleaved species and areas of shrub growth
predominate. Grasslands, which once covered most of the Central Valley, are now
limited to a discontinuous belt around the rim of the valley and in the
foothills. The golden poppy, the state flower, grows abundantly in the Central
Valley. Grasses and sedges also form meadows above 3,500 m (11,500 ft), the
timberline, in the Sierra Nevada. The mixed evergreen and broadleaved woodlands
occupy the low western slopes of the Sierra Nevada and extensive areas in the
Coast Ranges inland from the coast. These relatively open woodlands include oak,
pine, and juniper. Large areas of the uplands along the southern coast are
covered with chaparral, a low, and in places almost impenetrable, shrub growth
of manzanita, mountain mahogany, California scrub oak, chamise, buckbrush, and
other evergreen species. The lower western slopes of the Sierra Nevada are
covered partly with chaparral. Chaparral is prone to fire and poses a major
threat to expanding urban development, especially in Southern California.
Shrub growth also characterizes the
vegetation of the Californian deserts. However, plant growth tends to be sparse
throughout these areas. On well-drained slopes and in open spaces, creosote
bush, burroweed, and many species of cacti predominate. Deeper-rooted shrubs and
small trees, such as mesquite, desert ironwood, and desert willow, occur along
watercourses. The Joshua tree, juniper, piñon, and sagebrush are found at higher
elevations with slightly more rainfall.
G | Animal Life |
The grizzly bear, designated as the state
animal of California, disappeared from the state in the 1920s. Many of the other
large animals of California, such as the cougar and bobcat, are mainly sighted
in the foothills and woodlands throughout the state, wherever deer herds exist.
More abundant are the black bear, mule deer, and wapiti, or Roosevelt elk, of
the mountains, the black-tailed jackrabbit, bighorn sheep, and pronghorn of the
deserts, and the marmot, beaver, raccoon, red fox, weasel, chipmunk, and western
gray squirrel of the forests. The native Sierra Nevada fox is only seen in the
Sierra Nevada while its counterpart, the red fox, an introduced species, is
prolific throughout the state. Although some natural predators, such as the
grizzly bear, have long since disappeared from the state, the population of
other predators, such as the mountain lion, has remained stable or increased
slightly during the past 20 years. Likewise, populations of the species that are
preyed upon, such as mule deer, have also remained stable.
Birds of the Sierra Nevada include
Steller’s jay, the black-headed grosbeak, western bluebird, western tanager,
acorn woodpecker, and several warblers. The golden eagle and the bald eagle are
sometimes seen soaring among the crags of the Sierra Nevada. The wren-tit and
the California quail, which is the state bird, are characteristic of the
chaparral country, as are the cactus wren and the canyon wren of the desert. In
the wild, rugged mountains behind Santa Barbara live the few remaining wild
specimens of America’s largest bird, the California condor. Gulls, terns,
cormorants, pelicans, and murres are common residents along the coast.
The reptiles of California include many
species of snakes, lizards, and turtles. Most abundant in the deserts, they
include the western diamond rattlesnake, sidewinder, desert tortoise, horned
toad, and gila monster.
California’s temperate coastal waters
support a great variety of marine life. Although a variety of species are seen,
primarily Gray whales visit these waters. The islands and rocky capes serve as
sea lion rookeries, and there are a few small colonies of sea otter and elephant
seals. Marine fish include tuna, salmon, bass, anchovies, sardines, squid, and
herring, which are preyed upon by predatory species such as mackerel, barracuda,
rockfish, sole, and grunion, which is found only off the shores of California.
Shellfish include abalones, clams, lobsters, shrimp, and oysters.
Many species of freshwater fish inhabit
the lakes and rivers. Golden trout are native to Sequoia National Park, as are
rainbow trout to the Lassen Volcanic National Park. Brook trout and brown trout
have been introduced into Californian streams. Salmon and steelhead (sea-going
rainbow trout) also swim the streams of California. Newly hatched fish, called
fingerlings, make their way downstream at the beginning of their long trek far
out into the Pacific Ocean. When mature, the fish return to their ancestral
streams to spawn. However, the numbers of fish making the migration has
diminished to a mere fraction of what it once was. Causes of the decline include
warming stream waters associated with logging, the construction of dams,
pollution, and periodic droughts, as well as the pressures of commercial and
sport fisheries.
H | Conservation |
Conservationists in California are active
in the fields of flood control, prevention of soil erosion, forest conservation,
preservation of the state’s scenic areas and wildlife resources, and reduction
of air pollution. Federal agencies that maintain conservation programs in
California include the Natural Resources Conservation Service, the Forest
Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the Water and Power Resources Service,
the National Park Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Army Corps of
Engineers. The resources agency of California is responsible for state
conservation programs. Also active are such private groups as the
Save-the-Redwoods League, Sierra Club, and California Conservation Council.
Numerous conservationists in California
consider urban encroachment on farmland and scenic rural areas to be a major
problem, especially around the rapidly growing cities of the south. Efforts are
being made to avoid haphazard development by regional planning. Air pollution,
an essentially urban problem, is particularly serious in the Los Angeles area,
the San Francisco Bay area, and the Central Valley.
One of California’s greatest problems is
to provide adequate water to meet the needs of its rapidly expanding population.
There is an abundant water supply in sparsely settled northern California, but
the demand is greatest in the more densely populated and much drier sections of
central and southern California. In addition, water flow in the rivers is often
irregular, and flooding may occur in the winter and spring. The redistribution
and regulation of the water supply is the major objective of the state’s water
projects.
The federal Central Valley Project,
sponsored by the United States Bureau of Reclamation in the 1930s, is an
extensive system of dams, reservoirs, and irrigation canals that supplies water
to the Central Valley for irrigation and urban use. The aims of the project also
include flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. The main units
include the Shasta, Friant, Trinity, and San Luis dams and their reservoirs, and
the Delta-Mendota and Friant-Kern canals.
The California State Water Project seeks
to alleviate water shortages in the Central Valley and also in southern
California. Key units include the Feather River Project and the huge Oroville
Dam in northern California, the California Aqueduct, and Lake Perris in
Riverside County, the southern terminus of the nearly 1,000-km (600-mi) long
system.
San Francisco receives much of its water
supply from the Tuolumne River in the Sierra Nevada, by way of Hetch Hetchy
Aqueduct. A large part of the water supply of Los Angeles is carried by aqueduct
from the distant Owens River, the Mono Lake area, and the eastern Sierra Nevada
watershed. The Los Angeles Aqueduct system, run by the city’s Department of
Water and Power, is the only gravity-flow water redistribution system in the
state. Water carried by the aqueduct flows downhill from the Mono Basin, at an
elevation of 1,945 m (6,380 ft), southward to the Los Angeles Basin, at near sea
level. All other major projects use pumps to lift water over elevated terrain.
Another project bringing water to southern California is the Colorado River
Aqueduct, which taps the Colorado River. The All-American Canal carries
irrigation water from Imperial Dam on the Colorado to the Imperial Valley. Water
from the Colorado, of major importance to southern California, is available in
amounts limited by agreements with Arizona and other states in the Colorado
River basin.
Heavy use of groundwater, from wells, in
coastal areas of southern California has lowered the water table. As a result,
salt water from the ocean has seeped into the water table and is a threat to
local water supplies. However, the ocean is also a possible source of fresh
water. Small desalination plants have been built in Santa Barbara, on Santa
Catalina Island, and elsewhere. The cost to consumers of desalinated water,
however, is many times that of water supplied by freshwater redistribution
projects. Moreover, with desalination plants using large amounts of electricity
to operate and traditional sources of energy dwindling in supply, desalination
is unlikely to become a viable solution to California’s water problems.
In 2006 the state had 93 hazardous waste
sites on a national priority list for cleanup due to their severity or proximity
to people. Progress was being made in efforts to reduce pollution; in the period
1995–2000 the amount of toxic chemicals discharged into the environment was
reduced by 26 percent.
III | ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES |
Since the earliest settlement of the region
by the Spanish in the 18th century, agriculture has been vital to the California
economy. The gold rush of the mid-19th century was followed by the intensive
exploitation of petroleum and other minerals. As the population grew, fishing
and forestry became important, and by the late 19th century light manufacturing
industries had developed. Industrial diversification proceeded swiftly in the
early 20th century. The motion-picture, radio, and, later, television industries
added other dimensions to the economy. World War II (1939-1945) accelerated
industrial development and spawned the state’s large aerospace industry.
Government and educational services expanded rapidly after the war, as did
tourism and other service industries. The economy suffered a recession in the
early 1990s, fueled by cutbacks in aerospace and other military-related
industries, coupled with a slowdown in housing construction. By the late 1990s,
however, California’s economy had rebounded, showing sustained growth in both
jobs and production.
California had a work force of 17,902,000
people in 2006. Of those the largest share, 39 percent, worked in the diverse
services sector, doing jobs such as restaurant work or computer programming.
Another 19 percent worked in wholesale or retail trade; 17 percent in federal,
state, or local government, including those in the military; 10 percent in
manufacturing; 21 percent in finance, insurance, or real estate; 6 percent in
construction; 19 percent in transportation or public utilities; 3 percent in
farming (including agricultural services), forestry, or fishing; and just 0.2
percent in mining. In 2005, 17 percent of California’s workers belonged to a
labor union.
A | Agriculture |
By a number of different measures,
California has long been the nation’s leading agricultural state. In 1997
California led all other states with farm sales of $23 billion. Several of the
state’s commodities have annual sales of more than $1 billion, including milk
and cream, grapes, vegetables and melons, cattle and calves, nursery products,
poultry and eggs, and cotton lint and seed. California produces a greater
variety of crops, and has higher yields of those crops from each unit of land
planted, than any other state.
California’s farms are among the most
productive in the world. For example, the state’s highly automated rice industry
generates a yield three times greater than the labor-intensive rice paddies of
Asia. The high production is based in large part on the fertile soils and long
growing season of the region, the widespread practice of advanced farming
techniques, and the availability of water. Most of the farmlands lie in the dry
Central Valley and southern areas of the state, where farmers are dependent on
irrigation projects, such as the Central Valley Project, for water. With the
exception of only a few commodities, such as barley, most of the state’s
numerous crops are grown on irrigated lands. Livestock ranching is the main
activity on the nonirrigated farmlands. However, livestock are also frequently
raised on irrigated pastures. California leads all other states in the total
amount of land irrigated. Although many crops are grown in each of the farming
areas of the state, within each area the individual farms tend to specialize in
certain products.
There were 76,500 farms in California in
2005. Some 59 percent of them had annual income of more than $10,000. Many of
the rest were sidelines for operators who held other jobs. Farmland occupied
10.7 million hectares (26.4 million acres), of which 40 percent was cropland.
Most of the rest was used as range for the grazing of livestock. Some 75 percent
of California’s cropland was under irrigation.
A1 | Crops |
A great variety of crops, especially
fruits and vegetables, are grown in California. The state accounts for nearly
the entire U.S. production of walnuts, almonds, nectarines, olives, dates, figs,
pomegranates, and persimmons. It leads the nation in the production of
vegetables, including lettuce, tomatoes, broccoli, celery, cauliflower, carrots,
lima beans, and spinach, and also of apricots, grapes, lemons, strawberries,
plums and prunes, peaches, cantaloupes, avocados, and honeydew melons. It is the
nation’s leading producer of hay and the second leading producer of cotton.
California is also the second ranking state in the production of rice, oranges,
tangerines, grapefruit, apples, pears, sweet corn, and asparagus. Nearly every
crop grown in the United States is represented in California fields.
Crops account for 73 percent of the
state’s annual farm income, with the rest coming from livestock and animal
products. Vegetables are grown primarily in the Central, Imperial, and Salinas
valleys. Cotton is raised primarily in the southern San Joaquin Valley. Citrus
fruit production is centered in southern California and the southeastern San
Joaquin Valley. Grapes, peaches, potatoes, barley, and figs are raised chiefly
in the San Joaquin Valley; and rice, sugar beets, and pears are raised mainly in
the Sacramento Valley.
A2 | Livestock |
California leads the nation in egg and
milk production and ranks high in the marketing of cattle and calves, chickens,
turkeys, and sheep and lambs. Beef cattle and sheep are raised primarily in the
hillier parts of the Central Valley and the adjacent foothills. In addition,
cattle ranching is the most important activity in some of the dry, sparsely
populated basins east of the Sierra Nevada. Dairy cattle and poultry are raised
in the Central Valley and near the major urban centers.
B | Fisheries |
In the 1940s and early 1950s,
California’s annual fishing catch was greater in value and volume than that of
any other state. In the 1960s, however, California fell behind Alaska in output;
in 2004 the value of its fish catch, at $140 million, ranked high in the nation.
Among the most important commercial fish caught in Californian waters are
species of tuna, salmon, halibut, mackerel, and anchovy. Shellfish taken in
coastal waters include crab, shrimp, and abalone.
C | Forestry |
California usually ranks third among the
states, after Oregon and Washington, in output of timber and lumber. Lumbering
is the chief economic activity in the Sierra Nevada and in northwestern
California. Redwood and Douglas fir are the most important commercial species in
the northwest. Ponderosa or yellow pine is the principal commercial species in
the Sierra Nevada. About two-fifths of the forestland is classified as
commercial forest; more than half of the commercial forest is managed by the
United States Forest Service.
D | Mining |
California is the fourth-ranking state in
annual mineral output by value, after Texas, Louisiana, and Alaska. Crude oil
and natural gas account for two-thirds of the value of California’s mineral
production. California ranks third in the nation in the production of oil,
behind Texas and Louisiana. The oil fields of Kern County and the Los Angeles
area are the most important. Oil is also produced in offshore waters. Natural
gas wells are found in the Sacramento Valley and in all the oil-producing areas.
Yet reserves of natural gas are seriously depleted, so much so that the state
imports most of the natural gas it consumes each year. The bulk of natural gas
piped into California originates in the province of Alberta, Canada, and the
states of New Mexico and Texas.
California leads all other states in the
production of sand and gravel for construction, Portland cement, diatomite,
asbestos, and sodium sulfate. In addition, much of the world’s supply of boron
minerals comes from Searles Lake and other areas in California’s Mojave Desert.
The state is also the nation’s second largest producer of feldspar, soda ash,
titanium, and magnesium compounds, and the third largest producer of gold,
perlite, and pumice. Other minerals found in California include stone, lime,
clays, gypsum, talc, silver, gemstones, salt, copper, molybdenum, peat, and
various high grade iron ores. In spite of the great variety of minerals found in
the state, large quantities must be imported to meet the needs of California,
which is the nation’s leading consumer of minerals.
E | Manufacturing |
California leads all states in income
generated by industrial activity and in industrial employment. In 1996
California’s manufacturing sector contributed ten percent of the nation’s
manufacturing total, and some 2.0 million people were engaged in manufacturing
in the state.
California’s leading industry, in terms
of the value added by manufacturing, is electronic and electrical equipment
manufacturing. Value added by manufacturing is the difference between the price
of raw materials used in a product and the price it commands as a finished item.
The largest employers were firms making semiconductors, radios and televisions,
printed circuit boards, and telephones, although the diverse industrial sector
contained manufactures ranging from the makers of electron tubes to household
lighting fixtures.
Ranking high in California’s economy is
the manufacture of industrial machinery, principally computers and related
equipment but including the making of pumps, engines, turbines, and machines for
the service industry. Many computer companies are located in what is known as
Silicon Valley, in the San Jose-Palo Alto area. Food processing, which includes
the drying, freezing, and packaging of fruit, vegetables, fish, and livestock
products, is another of the state’s biggest industries. Included in this sector
is the California wine industry, which accounts for four-fifths of the nation’s
annual wine production. The manufacture of instruments contributes significantly
to California’s industrial economy, led by firms making such things as surgical
and medical instruments, appliances, and supplies, while also including those
making electric meters, analytical tools used in research and by other
industries, and photographic equipment.
The manufacture of transportation
equipment has long been important to California’s economy. By far the largest
employers in the sector are aeronautics firms, making civilian and military
aircraft, guided missiles, and vehicles used in space exploration. Other
activities include the building and repairing of ships and the manufacture and
assembly of automobiles.
Manufacturing is concentrated in southern
California and around San Francisco Bay. The aircraft industry is centered in
the Los Angeles and San Diego areas and is based in large part on federal
military expenditures. Automobile assembly plants are located near Los Angeles
in the San Fernando Valley, and in Fremont. There are shipbuilding yards at San
Diego. In Sacramento, Stockton, Fresno, Bakersfield, and other Central Valley
cities, foodstuffs are manufactured. In the San Francisco area, manufacturing is
highly diversified and includes food processing, automobile assembly,
shipbuilding, chemical production, printing and publishing, and the manufacture
of machinery. The computer and electronics industry is centered in Silicon
Valley, which is lesser known as, but officially, the Santa Clara Valley.
F | Electricity |
Hydroelectric facilities provided 20
percent of the electricity generated in California in 2005. Thermal power plants
burning fossil fuels provided another 50 percent, while 18 percent of
California’s electricity generation comes from four nuclear reactors, two at
Diablo Canyon west of San Luis Obispo and two at San Onofre southeast of San
Clemente. The city of Los Angeles imports power from a nuclear plant at Palo
Verde in Arizona. Southern California also imports electricity generated at
coal-fired thermal plants in Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. Renewable energy sources
such as wind-power generators and geothermal power plants, which use heat from
the Earth to make steam, accounted for 12 percent of electricity production in
2005.
G | Entertainment Industry |
Southern California, with its year-round
sunshine, variety of landscape, and excellent technical facilities, has
dominated the U.S. motion-picture industry since the 1920s. The name
Hollywood has long been synonymous with the world of motion pictures.
Since the late 1940s the Los Angeles area has also become a major center of the
U.S. television industry.
H | Tourist Industry |
California plays host to millions of
visitors each year, and many Californians are employed in providing for these
tourists. Tourists are drawn to the state’s magnificent scenery and recreational
facilities and to such cities as Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco,
which are also popular convention centers. Visitors to California spend $68
billion on lodgings, rental cars, and other traveling needs each year, by far
the largest sum for any state.
I | Transportation |
Trucks, buses, and automobiles play a
major role in the economic and social life of California. Automobiles are the
most important means of passenger transportation. There are more automobiles in
California than any other state—nearly one car for every two people.
I1 | Highways |
Beginning in the late 1940s the state
embarked on freeway construction, and complicated, multi-laned freeways are one
of California’s more indelible images. But dependence on the freeways has given
the state’s metropolitan areas some of the worst traffic congestion in the
nation. By 2005 there were 273,437 km (169,906 mi) of highways in California,
including 3,959 km (2,460 mi) of the federal interstate highways.
I2 | Railroads |
Several major railroads link the cities
of California with urban centers in other states to the east. The state was
served by 9,328 km (5,796 mi) of railroad track in 2004. The National Railroad
Passenger Corporation (Amtrak) also serves the state, and more passengers ride
trains in California than any other state except New York. Commuter rail systems
also provide transportation for people in the San Francisco and Los Angeles
metropolitan regions.
I3 | Airports |
There is widespread use of commercial
and private airplanes throughout California. The state ranks first among the
states in the number of registered civil aircraft and third, behind Texas and
Illinois, in the number of airports and airfields, having 37 in 2007. Los
Angeles, San Francisco, and San Diego are served by some of the busiest airports
in the country.
I4 | Ports and Inland Waterways |
The two principal port areas in
California are the combined ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach and the ports in
the San Francisco Bay area. The major ports in the bay area are San Francisco,
Oakland, Alameda, Richmond, and Redwood City. Other seaports in California
include San Diego, which is primarily a naval base, and Crescent City and
Eureka, in northern California. The lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers are
the only major inland waterways. The farm products they used to carry to San
Francisco Bay, however, are now transported mainly by truck. Nevertheless, ship
and barge canals have been built into the Central Valley cities of Stockton and
Sacramento. These inland seaports mainly serve California’s farm and forest
products industries, handling the shipment of everything from rice to
lumber.
J | Trade |
California leads the nation in retail and
wholesale trade. Los Angeles is one of the three largest United States trade
centers in value and volume. Other Californian trade centers are San Francisco,
which serves a very large area, San Diego, Sacramento, Fresno, San Jose, and
Stockton. In addition, Californian ports are engaged in an extensive overseas
trade.
IV | THE PEOPLE OF CALIFORNIA |
A | Population Patterns |
The population of California grew very
fast in the second half of the 20th century. Much of the increase can be
attributed to in-migration from other states and emigration from other
countries. Many people were drawn to California to work in factories that were
built during World War II (1939-1945); others settled there after seeing the
state during military service; and many more moved to California because of its
mild climate and style of living. More recently the population increase has come
about because of immigration from other countries. More legal immigrants settle
in California than any other state, and the state is also home to many people
who came to the country without legal approval.
According to the 2000 national census,
California had 33,871,648 inhabitants, more than any other state. That was an
increase of 13.8 percent over the 1990 population of 29,760,021 and 30 percent
more than the 1980 population. In 2006 the average population density was 90
persons per sq km (234 per sq mi).
Most of the population is in southern
California, the San Francisco Bay area, and, to a lesser extent, the Central
Valley. California is the most urbanized state, with 94 percent of the people
living in cities or towns in 2000. A majority of Californians live in just three
metropolitan areas—Los Angeles-Long Beach, San Francisco-Oakland, and San
Diego—on the coast. Large areas in the mountains and deserts of the north and
east are sparsely inhabited.
Whites constitute the largest share of
California’s population, representing 59.5 percent of the people. Asians are
10.9 percent of the people, blacks are 6.7 percent, Native Americans are 1
percent, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders are 0.3 percent, and those
of mixed heritage or not reporting race are 21.5 percent. Hispanics, who may be
of any race, are 32.4 percent of the population.
B | Principal Cities |
The extensive Los Angeles-Riverside-Orange
County metropolitan area had a population of 16.4 million in 2000, or one-half
of the entire population of California. The city of Los Angeles proper had
3,849,378 residents (2006). Founded in 1781 as a Spanish pueblo, Los Angeles, by
the time of its bicentennial year in 1981, passed Chicago as the nation’s second
largest city. The metropolitan area includes numerous communities with large
populations in addition to Los Angeles. Long Beach, the biggest besides Los
Angeles, had 472,494 inhabitants in 2006. Other major cities included Anaheim
(334,425), Riverside (293,761), San Bernardino (198,985), Torrance (142,350),
Pomona (154,271), Pasadena (144,133), and Ventura (104,017). The area is a
leading manufacturing and entertainment center.
The entire San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose
metropolitan region had a population of 7 million in 2000. San Francisco, the
“city by the Golden Gate,” was California’s largest city from gold rush days in
the 1850s until the early 1920s when Los Angeles passed it in population. The
city holds an influence in the United States in finance, international trade,
and culture far greater than other cities of similar size. San Francisco city
and county, which are geographically the same, contained 744,041 people in 2006.
San Jose had 929,936 inhabitants, and Oakland had 397,067. San Jose is one of
the most important manufacturing centers in the state and lies at the heart of
Silicon Valley. Oakland is an important port and manufacturing city. Also in the
metropolitan region is Berkeley, seat of the University of California, which had
101,555 residents in 2006.
San Diego, with a population of 1,256,951
in 2006, is the hub of an extensive metropolitan area (population 2.9 million in
2006). The city is an important naval base and commercial port, and it serves as
the major trade center of the Imperial Valley to the east. Sacramento, the state
capital, had a population of 453,781 in 2006. In addition to serving as an
administrative center, it is a commercial and manufacturing city. Fresno, with a
population of 466,714, and the smaller cities of Stockton (290,141) and
Bakersfield (308,392) are also food-processing centers in the Central Valley.
The largest cities in the state north of Sacramento are Redding, a tourist
center for the mountain region with 90,033 inhabitants; Chico, a commercial and
service center for a large almond- and fruit-growing region, with 73,316 people;
and Eureka, a seaport and fishing and lumbering center of 25,435
inhabitants.
C | Religion |
Franciscan friars entered California in
the San Diego area in 1769 to establish the Spanish claim to the region and to
convert the Native Americans to Roman Catholicism. By 1823 they had established
a chain of 21 missions along the coast, stretching from San Diego north to
Sonoma. Protestantism was introduced in California by the early American
settlers in the 1830s. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, or Mormons, came to the state over the Mormon Trail from Utah during the
19th century, and laborers from China and Japan introduced Eastern religions.
The first Buddhist temple in the United States was constructed in San Francisco
in 1905. In the 20th century many religious cults and sects became established
in California.
The Roman Catholic Church now has the
largest membership of any denomination, with more than one-quarter of all church
members. The largest Protestant sects are the Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans,
and Presbyterians. Jewish congregations have many members. In San Francisco is
the headquarters of the Buddhist Churches of America. There are mosques in many
California cities.
V | EDUCATION AND CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS |
A | Education |
The earliest schools in California were
founded in the last half of the 18th century by Franciscan missionaries. In the
1840s, American settlers began to set up their own schools. Progressive school
laws, passed in the 1860s, provided for free elementary education for every
child and established an advanced state system of public education. High schools
were granted state support in 1903, and junior colleges were recognized as part
of the secondary school system in 1917. Full-time school attendance is now
compulsory for all children from 6 to 18 years old. Some 10 percent of the
state’s children attend private schools.
In the 2002–2003 school year California
spent $8,740 on each student’s education, compared to a national average of
$9,299. There were 21.1 students for every teacher (the national average was
15.9). California had one of the largest average class sizes of any state. Of
those older than 25 years of age, 80.1 percent percent had a high school
diploma, compared with an average for the nation of 84.1 percent percent.
B | Higher Education |
California is noted for its many excellent
public colleges and universities. The University of California, one of the
larger universities in the world, has campuses at Berkeley, Irvine, Santa Cruz,
Los Angeles, Davis, Santa Barbara, San Diego, and Riverside. The system also
includes a campus focusing on health sciences programs in San Francisco, the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, and more than 500 research
centers throughout the state. It was founded in 1855 as the private College of
California, in Oakland, and was chartered as a state university, in Berkeley, in
1868. Besides the University of California, in 2000 the state system of higher
education included the California State University System, which has 22 campuses
from San Diego to Humboldt County along the northwest coast and 107 community
colleges. In all the state had 144 public and 255 private institutions of higher
education.
Many of the early colleges in California
were private institutions established by religious denominations. The two oldest
schools in the state, both dating from 1851, are the University of the Pacific,
founded by Methodists as California Wesleyan College, and Santa Clara
University, established by Roman Catholics as Santa Clara College. Among the
most noted of California’s many private institutions are Stanford University, in
Stanford; the University of Southern California, in Los Angeles; California
Institute of Technology, in Pasadena; Claremont Colleges, a consortium of seven
schools, in Claremont; Mills College, in Oakland; and Whittier College, in
Whittier.
C | Libraries |
There are 179 tax-supported public library
systems in California. San Francisco and Los Angeles are particularly noted for
their extensive municipal library systems. Each year the state’s libraries
circulate an average of 5.3 books for every resident. Among the many fine
college libraries in the state are those maintained by the University of
California. At Stanford University is the Hoover Institution Library and
Archives. Extensive collections of materials on state and Western history are
housed in the Bancroft Library of the University of California, Berkeley; in the
California State Library in Sacramento; and in the library of the California
Historical Society in San Francisco.
D | Museums |
The private Huntington Library, Art
Collections, and Botanical Gardens in San Marino contains an outstanding
collection relating to English and American literature and history, as well as
noted collections of European art, tapestries, furniture, porcelain, and
miniatures. Famous works of art are also found in the Crocker Art Museum in
Sacramento, the Santa Barbara Museum of Art, the Oakland Museum of California,
the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and the Fine Arts Museums of San
Francisco, which includes the California Palace of the Legion of Honor Museum.
The Los Angeles County Museum of Art has notable collections of American,
European, and Asian art. The Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena exhibits paintings
by European masters, as well as sculptures from Southeast Asia. One of
California’s newest arts and cultural complexes is the Getty Center in
Brentwood, overlooking Los Angeles. The center, opened in late 1997, is the new
site of the J. Paul Getty Museum, which had been located in the Getty Villa in
Malibu.
The famed California Historical Society in
San Francisco and many local and regional groups maintain collections of
California memorabilia. Other museums include the Natural History Museum of Los
Angeles County, the Griffith Observatory and the California Science Center, both
in Los Angeles, and the Haggin Museum in Stockton.
E | Communications |
In 2002 there were 125 daily newspapers
being published in California. The first newspaper established in California was
the Californian, which began operation in Monterey in 1846. The
Chico Enterprise-Record, founded in 1853, is the oldest
continuously published newspaper in the state. The state’s largest newspaper is
the Los Angeles Times, with an average daily circulation of 1.1
million. Other influential dailies include the Orange County Register, in
Santa Ana; the San Diego Union-Tribune; the Sacramento
Bee; the San Francisco Chronicle; the San Francisco
Examiner; the San Jose Mercury News; and the Oakland
Tribune. California is also an important book-publishing center.
The first commercial radio station in
California, KQL in Los Angeles, began broadcasting in 1921. KTLA, the first
television station in the state, began operation in 1947 in Los Angeles. Some
183 AM and 304 FM radio stations and 83 television stations served the state in
2002.
F | Music and Theater |
Since the mid-19th century, when traveling
theatrical companies visited the California mining camps, the theater has been
an important part of Californian cultural life. In addition, the growth of the
motion-picture and television industries in the 20th century attracted many
actors to the state and stimulated the growth of theater productions. There are
theaters in many Californian cities, and the state is the home of a number of
active professional theater groups. Among the groups is the Buffalo Nights
Theatre Company in Santa Monica. An annual summer theater festival is held in
the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego.
There are fine symphony orchestras in many
Californian cities. The most prominent are the San Francisco Symphony, founded
in 1909, and the Los Angeles Philharmonic, founded in 1919. The Hollywood Bowl,
in Los Angeles, is famous for the evening concerts held there during the summer
months. The San Francisco Opera has won national acclaim. Also in the city is a
noted music conservatory.
VI | RECREATION AND PLACES OF INTEREST |
Outdoor recreation has long played an
important part in Californian life, and the state’s numerous recreational
facilities are heavily used by both visitors and residents. Many of these
facilities are found in the national parks, national forests, state parks,
municipal parks, and other areas set aside for public use by the federal, state,
and local governments. Lumbering, hunting, and fishing are regulated in these
areas, many of which serve as preserves for the state’s forests, wildlife, and
other natural resources.
A | National Parks |
Among California’s eight national parks
are some of the most frequently visited parks in the country. Yosemite National
Park covers 3,100 sq km (1,200 sq mi) of scenic wild lands, including alpine
wilderness, three groves of giant sequoias, and the glacially carved Yosemite
Valley, with its impressive waterfalls, cliffs, and unusual rock formations.
Sequoia National Park, located in central California, is home to the 84-m
(275-ft) General Sherman giant sequoia, considered the most massive tree in the
world. Its circumference measured directly above the ground flare is 25 m (83
ft). Some of the world’s tallest trees grow in the Redwood National Park in the
northwestern portion of the state. Joshua Tree National Park has a
representative stand of Joshua trees and other desert vegetation. More of
California’s dramatically beautiful landscapes can be found in Kings Canyon
National Park, located in the Sierra Nevada and containing two enormous canyons
of the Kings River. In stark contrast is Death Valley National Park, which
encompasses the lowest land surface in the Western Hemisphere and the place
where the country’s record high temperature was recorded.
Before the 1980 eruption of Mount Saint
Helens in Washington, Lassen Peak, located in Lassen Volcanic National Park, was
the most recently active volcano in the contiguous 48 states, erupting
periodically from 1914 to 1921. Other signs of volcanic activity, including
cinder cones, lava flows, lava tube caves, pit craters, and steam vents, can be
found in Lava Beds National Monument, near the Oregon border, and in the Mammoth
Mountain area of the eastern Sierra Nevada. Devils Postpile National Monument,
also near Mammoth Mountain, contains lava columns up to 18 m (60 ft) high, and
Pinnacles National Monument, in the Diablo Range, has rock spires, caves, and a
variety of volcanic features.
Five of the eight islands in the Santa
Barbara channel comprise the Channel Islands National Park. A portion of the
park is under water and provides habitat for marine life ranging from
microscopic plankton to the world’s largest creature, the blue whale. Also
preserving a section of California’s coastal environment is Point Reyes National
Seashore about 60 km (about 40 mi) north of San Francisco.
Other national sites commemorate the rich
history of California. Cabrillo National Monument in San Diego’s Point Loma
district marks the spot where in 1542 Europeans first set foot upon what is now
California. Fort Point National Historic Site, which is part of Golden Gate
National Recreation Area, contains the fort built in the mid-1800s to prevent
any hostile fleets from entering San Francisco Bay. San Francisco Maritime
National Historical Park contains a square-rigged sailing ship, steam schooner,
three-masted schooner, steam tug, and a paddle wheel tug.
Manzanar National Historic Site, located
in the southern Owens Valley of eastern California, commemorates the internment
beginning in 1942 of Japanese Americans during World War II. The area from
Manzanar south through the Alabama Hills to Lone Pine with the highest part of
the Sierra Nevada as a backdrop is one of the most popular film-making locations
in the world, and now hosts the Lone Pine Film Festival every October.
Eugene O’Neill National Historic Site, in
Danville, commemorates the only Nobel Prize winning playwright from the United
States and the architect of modern American theater.
One of the country’s earliest crusaders
for national parks is remembered in two parks in California. John Muir National
Historic Site, in Martinez, preserves the mansion where the naturalist lived.
Also recognizing the explorer is Muir Woods National Monument, in Marin County,
a peaceful grove of coastal redwoods.
B | National Forests |
The 18 national forests in California are
administered by the United States Forest Service. National forests cover about
8.3 million hectares (about 20.6 million acres). Within the national forests are
a number of wilderness areas and wildlife refuges. Los Padres National Forest,
the largest national forest wholly within the state, covers 688,000 hectares
(1,700,000 acres) in western California. Most of the other larger national
forests in California lie in the northern and northeastern parts of the state.
Shasta-Trinity national forest, in northern California, lies in a volcanic area
culminating in the beautiful snowcapped Mount Shasta. In the northern coastal
uplands is Six Rivers National Forest, noted for its groves of redwoods.
Extending across the Sierra Nevada along California’s eastern border are Plumas,
Tahoe, Eldorado, Stanislaus, and Inyo national forests. Sierra National Forest,
in the Sierra Nevada region, preserves stands of giant sequoias.
C | State Parks |
The California state park system includes
about 128 units. The largest in area is Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, covering
243,000 hectares (600,000 acres) of desert and mountain country in southern
California. Humboldt Redwoods State Park, in the northwest, is the best known of
the several state parks that preserve some of the tallest remaining stands of
redwood trees. Calaveras Big Trees State Park, in the Sierra Nevada, is noted
for its fine stands of big trees. Point Lobos State Reserve, south of Monterey,
preserves a rockbound stretch of the Pacific Coast, which forms, with its varied
wildlife, a magnificent outdoor natural-history museum.
Hearst San Simeon State Historical
Monument, nestled in the wooded hills overlooking the Pacific, midway between
San Francisco and Los Angeles, preserves the lavish residence and estate of the
former journalist and publisher William Randolph Hearst. Among the many
California state parks of historic interest is Columbia Historic State Park, in
the tiny village of Columbia just north of Sonora. Columbia has been preserved
as a typical example of a Mother Lode mining community during the gold
rush.
D | Other Places to Visit |
Among the most popular of California’s
other tourist attractions are Disneyland, in Anaheim; Sea World, on the coast
near San Diego; the motion-picture studios of southern California; and
Chinatown, in San Francisco. Most of the early Spanish missions in California
have been preserved and at least partially restored. The Santa Barbara Mission,
known for its fine architecture, has been called the Queen of the Missions. Of
particular interest to astronomers are California’s Palomar Observatory and
Mount Wilson Observatory (see Hale Observatories), and Lick Observatory,
among the nation’s major observatories.
E | Sports |
California is the home of many
professional sports teams. The baseball teams are the San Francisco Giants, the
California (Anaheim) Angels, the Los Angeles Dodgers, the San Diego Padres, and
the Oakland Athletics. The football teams are the San Francisco 49ers, the
Oakland Raiders, and the San Diego Chargers. The basketball teams are the Golden
State (Oakland) Warriors, the Los Angeles Lakers, the Los Angeles Clippers, and
the Sacramento Kings. The hockey teams are the Los Angeles Kings, the Mighty
Ducks of Anaheim, and the San Jose Sharks.
F | Annual Events |
The Tournament of Roses, an event of
national interest, takes place in Pasadena on New Year’s Day. It includes a
spectacular parade and the Rose Bowl collegiate football game. In February the
National Orange Show is held in San Bernardino. In May the Jumping Frog Jubilee
is held in the small community known as Angels Camp, in Calaveras County. The
contest was inspired by a story by American author Mark Twain. During the second
week of August the Old Spanish Days Fiesta is held at Santa Barbara. The State
Fair, held at Sacramento in late August and early September, is a popular annual
event that dates from the 1860s. Admission Day, the annual statewide celebration
of California’s admission to the Union, takes place on September 9. Many other
colorful fairs and festivals occur during the year in California. Among them are
the Bach Festival in Carmel, the Festival of Arts in Laguna Beach, the Los
Angeles County Fair, and the Grand National Livestock Exposition, Horse Show,
and Rodeo, which is held near San Francisco.
VII | GOVERNMENT |
California’s first state constitution was
ratified by popular vote in November 1849, almost a year before statehood. The
second and present constitution was adopted in 1879. An amendment to the
constitution may be proposed by the legislature, voter initiative, or a
constitutional convention. To be ratified, it must be approved by a majority of
the people voting on the issue in an election.
A | Executive |
The state’s chief executive, the
governor, is elected for a four-year term. The governor appoints some of the
state officials and is responsible for the preparation of the state budget. The
governor may veto legislation, but the state legislature can override the veto
by a vote of two-thirds of the elected membership of each legislative house. The
governor may also veto or reduce individual items in appropriations bills. The
other elected officials of the executive branch are the lieutenant governor,
secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, controller, superintendent of
public instruction, insurance commissioner, and the four members of the board of
equalization. All are elected to serve four-year terms.
B | Legislative |
The California legislature is made up of
a 40-member Senate and an 80-member Assembly. State senators are elected to
four-year terms and members of the assembly to two-year terms. California’s
legislature convenes for one of the longest terms of any state legislature.
Sessions begin on the first Monday in December of each even-numbered year and
last until the end of November in the next even-numbered year. The governor may
also call for a special session of the legislature. California’s citizens can
pass laws directly or through their power of initiative, or they can prevent a
law from being enacted by calling for a referendum.
C | Judicial |
The Supreme Court, the highest state
court, is made up of a chief justice and six associate justices. Supreme court
justices, as well as the justices of the state’s district courts of appeal,
serve 12-year terms. They are initially appointed by the governor with the
approval of the commission on judicial appointments, and at the expiration of
their terms they can run unopposed for election to another term. In addition to
these appellate courts, California has superior courts, municipal courts, and
various lower courts, with judges elected to six-year terms.
D | Local Government |
Most of the 58 counties in California
are governed by a five-member board of supervisors elected to four-year terms.
Most of the municipalities have the council and city manager form of
government.
E | National Representation |
California elects two U.S. senators and
53 members of the U.S. House of Representatives. The state casts 55 electoral
votes in presidential elections.
VIII | HISTORY |
A | Original Inhabitants |
Prehistoric inhabitants of California
practiced complex religions, hunted with arrowheads made of flint, and subsisted
largely on the abundant available acorns supplemented by numerous small animals;
coastal peoples ate fish and shellfish. California has many different local
climates. Native houses varied accordingly. Indigenous Californians often lived
in small communities of about 150 people whom the Spanish called
rancherias. Within the boundaries of present-day California there were
once 22 different linguistic families with 135 regional dialects. At the time of
European discovery there may have been 100,000 to 150,000 native inhabitants in
California, but diseases brought by the Europeans would markedly reduce the
population.
B | European Exploration |
The Spanish explorer Juan Rodríguez
Cabrillo was the first European in the area of present-day California. In 1542
Cabrillo sailed into San Diego Bay and then continued north along the California
coast, making frequent trips ashore to claim land for Spain. In 1579 the English
explorer Sir Francis Drake sailed along the coast of northern California, which
he named Nova Albion and claimed for England. However, no Europeans settled in
California for nearly 200 years thereafter.
C | Spanish Rule |
In the 1740s and 1750s Russian traders
in search of seal and sea otter pelts began hunting along the Pacific coastline
north of California. As Spain wanted to prevent Russian claims to the area, in
1769 Governor Gaspar de Portolá of Lower California (now Baja California,
Mexico) led an expedition to settle California. Accompanied by Junípero Serra, a
Franciscan missionary, in July they reached the site of San Diego. There they
set up a presidio, or military post, as well as a mission, where the
native inhabitants were brought to be taught Christianity and to be prepared to
become subjects of the Spanish king. Between 1769 and 1823 the Franciscans, a
religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, built 20 more missions near the
coast of California. Before long the missions controlled so much land that they
formed a continuous chain from San Diego to north of San Francisco Bay. Most of
the native peoples in the coastal region were taken to the missions and were
forced to work as farm laborers under the direction of the missionaries. The
Spanish built a number of presidios in addition to their first one at San Diego
and created small farming settlements, known as pueblos. The first pueblo
was established as early as 1777. The pueblos were inhabited for the most part
by poor settlers from Mexico whom the Spanish had induced to go to the
California region.
Spain, however, could not prevent
foreigners from entering California. British, French, and United States ships
traded with the Spanish coastal settlements in violation of Spanish regulations
prohibiting such trade. In 1812 Russian fur traders built an outpost, now known
as Fort Ross, less than 160 km (100 mi) north of San Francisco. They also built
several settlements in the vicinity of Bodega Bay, and refused to withdraw from
California until 1824, when the region was no longer under Spanish control.
D | Mexican Rule |
In 1821 Mexico gained its independence
from Spain. In 1825, after several years of local provisional government, Alta
California, as the region was then called, formally became a territory of the
Republic of Mexico.
A number of influential Californians
had disliked the wealth and power of the missions during Spanish rule, and after
Mexican independence protested to the Mexican authorities against the missions.
Eventually the new republic agreed to reduce the power of the missions, and in
1833 the Mexican congress released Native Americans from the control of the
missions and opened mission lands for settlement by Californians.
Most of the former mission lands were
given as grants to several hundred long-established families. Huge semifeudal
estates, known as ranchos, replaced the missions as the dominant
institution in California. Cattle raising, developed during the mission days,
was the main economic activity on the ranchos. Ranchos traded cattle hides,
tallow, horns, and pickled beef for processed food and manufactured goods from
foreign ships, including some from the United States.
During the period of Mexican rule,
which lasted into the 1840s, a series of largely bloodless uprisings broke out
in California. Sometimes these pitted the rancheros, or ranch owners,
against the Mexican authorities, but at other times they involved feuds between
rancheros themselves, who fought over land or issues of pride.
E | United States Settlement |
Most U.S. citizens who went to
California before 1840 were sailors, fur trappers, and adventurers. A number of
trappers, including James Ohio Pattie and Jedediah Smith, arrived by overland
routes from the East, and in 1840 several hundred settlers from the United
States lived in California, in addition to several thousand Hispanic, or
Spanish-speaking, settlers. United States settlers sent out exaggerated reports
of the easy life in California. In the 1840s emigrant parties in the Midwest
began to organize for the overland trip to California and other regions along
the Pacific Coast. In 1841 John Bidwell and John Bartleson led the first group
of settlers overland, and in the next five years about 800 settlers traveled to
California over the western portion of the Santa Fe Trail, the Oregon Trail, and
the California Trail. These travelers endured a long, arduous trek across
plains, deserts, and mountains, and often faced hostile native peoples and bad
weather. One group, the Donner party, became stranded in the Sierra Nevada
during the winter of 1846 and 1847; some ate dead members of the party to
survive.
Most of the new Californians, many of
them farmers, settled in the fertile Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, rather
than along the coast. The Mexican government regarded the United States settlers
with hostility and suspicion, fearing that they would encourage the United
States to attempt to annex California, but the Mexican government was too weak
and divided to expel them.
F | Mexican War and Annexation |
In 1845 Mexico ruled vast areas of what
became the western and southwestern United States, including California. U.S.
President James K. Polk was committed to the expansion of the United States and
favored the annexation of Texas, which occurred in December 1845. The month
before, Polk had sent an envoy to Mexico City in an attempt to purchase
California and other parts of the Southwest. In May 1846 Mexico refused the
offer. This refusal was one factor—along with the Texas annexation and lawsuits
against the Mexican government by U.S. citizens—that led to the Mexican War
(1846-1848) between Mexico and the United States.
United States settlers in California
had become increasingly uncomfortable with Mexican rule. On June 14, 1846, they
captured the presidio at Sonoma, north of San Francisco, and proclaimed the
independence of the settlements. The uprising is known as the Bear Flag Revolt,
because the rebels raised a homemade flag that carried the figure of a grizzly
bear, as well as a star and the words California Republic. John Charles
Frémont, an explorer and future Republican candidate for U.S. president, lent
support to these rebels, but the republic was short-lived. On July 7, 1846,
Commodore John D. Sloat, commander of U.S. naval forces along the Pacific Coast,
ordered the U.S. flag raised at Monterey and formally claimed California for the
United States.
In August, Sloat’s replacement,
Commodore Robert F. Stockton, set up a new government in California with himself
as governor. In September, however, Mexicans led by Captain José Maria Flores
attacked the new republic and gained control over much of California south of
San Luis Obispo. Several months later, in December 1846, a U.S. force under
Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny arrived in California. They were defeated at
the Battle of San Pasqual, near what is now Escondido, but Kearny’s men, in
cooperation with Stockton’s troops, captured Los Angeles on January 10, 1847. At
Los Angeles, the Mexicans, under the so-called Cahuenga Capitulation, agreed to
accept United States rule. On February 2, 1848, California was ceded to the
United States by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which formally ended the
Mexican War.
G | Gold Rush |
Scarcely more than a week before the
signing of the treaty, on January 24, 1848, New Jersey-born carpenter James W.
Marshall inspected a sawmill that he was building with his partner, John A.
Sutter, on the South Fork of the American River, 56 km (35 mi) northeast of
Sacramento. Marshall noticed flakes of yellow metal that later proved to be
gold. By the end of that year, Marshall’s discovery had set off the greatest
gold rush in United States history. In 1849 gold seekers, known as Forty-Niners,
came to California from every part of the United States and from all over the
world. The search for gold was concentrated on the Mother Lode country, in the
western foothills of the Sierra Nevada. California’s population now rose to more
than 90,000 by the end of 1849 and to 220,000 by 1852, the year in which gold
production reached its peak. In the next two years, the gold rush ended almost
as quickly as it began. Gold mining became a fairly stable and more organized
enterprise. Most prospectors either became farmers, merchants, or left the
state, as large mining companies took their place.
H | Statehood |
The flood of settlers following the
discovery of gold created a need for effective civil government in California.
The Congress of the United States had failed to organize California as a
territory because of a deadlock over whether slavery would be permitted in the
new states. Finally, Californians acted on their own. In September 1849 a
convention met at Monterey and adopted a state constitution, including a clause
prohibiting slavery. The constitution was approved by popular vote on November
13, and on December 15 the first legislature met at San Jose to create an
unofficial state government. The Compromise Measures of 1850, a series of
congressional acts passed during August and September 1850, admitted California
as a free, or nonslave, state. On September 9, 1850, California became the 31st
state in the Union. Peter H. Burnett, a Democrat, was its first governor. The
state capital was moved successively from San Jose to Monterey, Vallejo, and
Benicia. In 1854 it was located permanently at Sacramento.
I | Land Grants |
During the Spanish and Mexican periods,
over 800 huge grants of land had been given to Hispanics and some whites who
settled in California. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo explicitly guaranteed
that these land grants would be honored by the United States. Several were
larger than 40,500 hectares (100,000 acres). With the beginning of the Gold Rush
and the influx of new settlers, Americans complained about the size of such land
claims. The U.S. Senate sympathized with the new immigrants, not the rancheros,
most of whom were Hispanic, and passed legislation that allowed multiple appeals
on land claim decisions. Thus, most claims remained unresolved for years. Owners
had to prove ownership, a difficult task because few accurate surveys had ever
been made. The cost of court proceedings often consumed more than the property
was worth.
J | Native Americans in 19th-Century California |
After Native Americans left the
California missions, they found the land had changed with settlement. European
settlers along the coast now owned much of the land that had previously
supported the indigenous Californians. With little choice, many former mission
residents turned to the ranchos for work herding cattle. Rancheros advanced them
some money, food, and alcohol on credit, and when they were unable to repay
their debts, forced them to continue working. Some were quickly reduced to
begging and petty crime for survival. The native Californians were often rounded
up to work during peak seasons.
Following the Gold Rush, white settlers
and miners flooded their traditional lands. As some newcomers had been attacked
on their way to California by other native peoples, some were hostile to the
local tribes. After 1848 a series of encounters between whites and Native
Americans resulted in several massacres of which whites were often the
perpetrators. The worst atrocities took place in northern California, and
culminated in the Modoc War of 1872 and 1873. In 1864 the Modoc had been forced
to move to a reservation in Oregon. They returned to California twice, but each
time they were told to move back. On the second occasion, the Modoc took refuge
in lava beds near Tule Lake. After a three-month battle in which the armed
Modocs killed about 75 men while losing only 5, they were defeated and their
chief, Kintpuash (known as Captain Jack), was hanged. By 1900, only about 5,000
Native Americans remained in the state.
K | Economic Development, 1850-1900 |
Huge numbers of settlers continued to
come to California in the decades following the end of the gold rush. Three
major economic developments accompanied the arrival of immigrants: agricultural
activities expanded and diversified; railroads were built between California and
the rest of the country; and manufacturing activities and new economic
enterprises grew rapidly.
K1 | Agriculture |
The focus of agriculture in
California shifted in the 1860s from raising livestock, or ranching, to growing
grain. Particularly in the vast Central Valley, farmers began devoting former
grazing land to wheat and barley cultivation. Grain and flour produced in
California were carried by ship around South America to the eastern United
States. Farmers in the Central Valley and in southern California, however, found
they could make more money raising fruits and vegetables. After 1869 California
was linked by railroad with the Eastern states; refrigerated freight cars made
shipping fruit and vegetables to those markets possible.
K2 | Railroads |
The first railroad within the state,
a 35-km (22-mile) line between Sacramento and Folsom, was completed in 1855. Two
railroad companies built the first transcontinental railroad: The Union Pacific
Railway laid tracks west from Omaha, Nebraska, and the Central Pacific Railroad,
under the leadership of wealthy Sacramento businessmen Leland Stanford, Charles
Crocker, Collis P. Huntington, and Mark Hopkins, laid track east from
Sacramento. The two lines were joined at Promontory, near Ogden, Utah, on May
10, 1869. In 1876 the Central Pacific was extended southward, reaching Los
Angeles. The southern portion of this line was called the Southern Pacific
Railroad. Early in the 1880s the Southern Pacific linked California with New
Orleans.
Railroads had originally promised to
stimulate the California economy and to attract new settlers to the state.
Although economic growth did increase and settlers did arrive, especially in
southern California, economic depression struck the nation in the 1870s, and few
of the settlers who came could afford to begin farming immediately. Over time,
however, the railroads encouraged the rapid growth of cities in California and
made it easy and relatively inexpensive to ship agricultural products across the
country.
K3 | Other Economic Activities |
Mining, primarily for gold, was the
main nonagricultural economic activity in California after 1850; but, beginning
in the 1870s, manufacturing increased considerably. In 1900 manufacturing had
become the most important state economic activity, although meat packing as well
as fruit and vegetable canning were based on California’s growing agricultural
production. Other important activities included lumber milling, brick
manufacturing, fish processing, and the production of farm machinery. Oil
production also began in southern California during the last two decades of the
century.
L | Social Discontent and Reform Movements |
In the latter part of the 19th century,
California farmers had to pay high railroad rates and unfair taxes. Nonfarm
workers were also bitter about low wages and high unemployment, which they
blamed on the large number of Chinese workers in the state. Many of the Chinese
had been brought to California as railroad construction workers because they
were willing to work for lower wages than were Americans. Severe nationwide
economic depressions in the mid-1870s and again in the early 1890s increased the
problems of all farmers and workers. In addition, the state government was
dominated by politicians who, allied with railroad companies and other
corporations, often showed little concern for the issues raised by farmers and
laborers.
In the 1870s a number of violent riots
were directed against the Chinese. In 1877 the Workingmen’s Party of California
was organized after riots in which Chinese-owned laundries were burned. Most of
the party’s support came from workers and small farmers. Led by the fiery
speaker Denis Kearney, the party ultimately encouraged both state and federal
anti-Chinese legislation. When a second California Constitution was adopted in
1879 the Workingmen’s Party made sure it included anti-Chinese articles. The
U.S. Congress followed that in 1880 by passing a law regulating Chinese
immigration, and in 1882 Congress banned it completely for ten years. The
Workingmen’s Party also encouraged the creation of a state railroad commission
to oversee railroad activities, but railroad companies quickly gained control of
the commission. After the demise of the Workingmen’s Party in 1880, large
railroad companies and corporations dominated state politics.
In the first decade of the 20th century
a group of progressive Republicans, who believed in more government action to
stamp out corruption and to meet the needs of citizens, took over the state
government. In 1910 Republican Hiram W. Johnson was elected governor, and during
his administration sweeping political and economic reforms were passed by the
state legislature. Among the most important of these were the initiative, the
process of enacting legislation by means of public petition or a popular vote;
the referendum, the practice of submitting an issue to a public vote; and the
recall, the ability to remove officials from office by popular vote. In
addition, California created a new and effective railroad commission, allowed
women to vote in state elections, and required employers to participate in a
plan that would compensate workers for work-related injuries. In 1912, when
former President Theodore Roosevelt ran for president on the Progressive Party
ticket, Johnson was his vice-presidential candidate, but Democrat Woodrow Wilson
won the election.
M | Early-20th-Century Economic Development |
During the first three decades of the
20th century, California’s economy and population continued to grow apace.
Between 1900 and 1930 the state’s population increased from 1,485,053 to
5,677,251. The rate of growth was most rapid in southern California, especially
around Los Angeles. Huge irrigation projects and mechanized farming methods
dramatically increased agricultural production.
Industrial production also increased in
the same three decades. In 1907 oil surpassed gold as California’s most
economically valuable natural resource, and between 1900 and 1936, California
became one of the principal oil-producing states in the nation. The opening of
the Panama Canal in 1914 greatly shortened the sea route between California and
the East Coast of the United States. At the same time, a deepwater harbor was
built at Los Angeles.
In April 1906 San Francisco was
seriously damaged by an earthquake, which caused a fire that burned for three
days. Most of San Francisco’s downtown and residential areas were destroyed.
However, the city was rebuilt quickly, with many improved facilities, including
a better port. Many highways were built in California in the 1920s, and a number
of automobile-assembly plants were built, primarily near San Francisco and Los
Angeles. In the 1920s and 1930s the Los Angeles area became an important center
for the U.S. aircraft industry. Also in the 1920s, the new motion-picture
industry grew at Hollywood in southern California.
The stock market crash of 1929 and the
Great Depression that followed caused high unemployment, many business failures,
and farm foreclosures in California throughout the 1930s. The state’s social and
economic problems were also aggravated by the influx of thousands of homeless
farmers and farm workers from drought-ridden Oklahoma and Arkansas, called Okies
and Arkies, as well as emigrants from Kansas, Texas, and other states.
The economic distress of the 1930s was
partially eased by construction on a number of water projects in the state.
These included Boulder Dam (renamed Hoover Dam in 1947), Imperial Dam, and
Parker Dam, on the lower Colorado River, as well as major canals and aqueducts
linking the dams with the Los Angeles area and the Imperial Valley. Work was
also begun during the 1930s on a vast project to bring water to the Central
Valley.
N | World War II and After |
During World War II (1939-1945) the
demand for war supplies helped the recovery of California’s agricultural,
manufacturing, shipbuilding, and lumbering industries. The war in the Pacific
also enormously increased the traffic at California’s ports and naval bases and
brought thousands of industrial workers to the state’s new aircraft and
munitions plants.
O | The Japanese in California |
Japanese workers had begun immigrating
to California in the 1890s and experienced racial discrimination, as had the
Chinese before them. In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education announced that
Japanese students would have to attend a Chinese school, which was renamed the
Oriental School. President Theodore Roosevelt arranged to have the policy
rescinded in exchange for Japanese limits on immigration to the United States.
In 1924 Asian immigration was shut off entirely.
As World War II approached,
anti-Japanese feelings increased further. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in
Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, public groups in California argued that the
Japanese should be removed from the state. On February 19, 1942, President
Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which ordered the removal of
112,000 Californians of Japanese descent, two-thirds of them U.S. citizens, to
internment camps in the interior of the United States. After the war, although
they were allowed to return, a large number settled in other areas. In 1988 the
Congress of the United States passed a bill to compensate those who had been
detained.
P | Postwar California |
California’s varied economy provided
its new residents with a personal income substantially above the national
average. The decade after the war saw especially rapid urban residential growth.
In those ten years, California’s population increased almost 50 percent—from
almost 9 million to 13 million. By 1970 the state numbered 19.9 million
residents, bypassing New York to become the most populous state.
Earl Warren, a liberal Republican,
served as governor for ten years until September 1953, when he was appointed
chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1959 Edmund G.
Brown, Sr., became the state’s second Democratic governor since 1899. But by
1966 California had become more conservative, and Brown was defeated in his bid
for a third term by Republican Ronald Reagan, a former movie actor. Many
California voters saw government activity related to social and economic
problems as too much interference in the concerns of private individuals.
Conservatism in California was especially strong in populous southern California
and in rural areas. Reagan, who was reelected governor in 1970, also became a
leading spokesman nationwide for conservative issues, and in 1980 was elected
president of the United States, defeating Democratic President Jimmy
Carter.
Racial politics were also part of the
conservative trend. Blacks had migrated to California in large numbers during
and after World War II seeking jobs. Their growing resentment against
discrimination in housing and labor unions accompanied the destructive August
1965 riots in the Watts section of Los Angeles. These outbreaks helped turn many
whites against the policies of Governor Brown. Brown’s administration had
cracked down on racial discrimination by employers. In the 1970s many
conservative voters also began to resent the large influx into the state of
Mexican immigrants, many of them illegal.
Dissident protests took place on
California’s college campuses in the late 1960s. Students demonstrated against
U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War (1959-1975). One major center of public
demonstrations was the University of California at Berkeley. The protests
alarmed many voters, who generally supported measures to suppress the
disturbances and to reduce funds for higher education.
Labor issues also confronted the state
in the 1960s and 1970s, especially in the important fruit and vegetable
industry. During World War II the United States had reached an agreement with
Mexico to allow large numbers of workers, called braceros, to work in the
United States. They had been joined by illegal immigrants from Mexico who were
looking for work. Many of these immigrants became farm workers in California.
The United Farm Workers Union, headed by César Chávez, struggled to unionize
agricultural laborers, largely Hispanic, despite the determined opposition of
farm owners. In 1975 all farm workers were guaranteed the right to collective
bargaining by the Agricultural Labor Relations Act, and in 1978 a majority of
grape growers, whom the United Farm Workers had been boycotting, signed
contracts with the union.
Californians also faced the problem of
protecting both their physical resources and their environment. The state’s
extraordinary growth in the years after World War II required the development of
huge projects to supply residential, agricultural, and industrial water needs,
particularly in arid and heavily populated southern California. The exploding
population and growing economy also contributed to pollution of the air and of
the environment. In the 1950s and 1960s the smog for which Los Angeles had
become notorious spread to other urban areas, even to the Central Valley, as
well as to Lake Tahoe and Yosemite National Park in the summers. California now
began seriously to attack its environmental problems, and in 1976 the
legislature created a commission to control development along the
coastline.
Reagan was succeeded as governor in
1975 by Democrat Edmund G. Brown, Jr., the son of Reagan’s predecessor. Brown,
Jr., also supported government involvement in social and economic activities.
His administration supported civil rights legislation, programs to protect the
state’s environment, and completion of his father’s huge California Water
Project.
But Brown, Jr., also argued that
government could only do so much. In 1978 a “taxpayers’ revolt” in California
offered Brown, Jr., an opportunity to put his theories of smaller government
into practice. The state’s voters overwhelmingly approved a constitutional
amendment, known as Proposition 13, that severely reduced local property tax
rates by more than two-thirds. This amendment created a financial crisis for
local governments, and the state legislature was forced to provide emergency aid
from the treasury.
Q | The End of the 20th Century |
In the past few decades California has
experienced a frenzied building of new freeways, airports, factories, and
schools. Smog and traffic congestion have enveloped urban areas and an urban
landscape has replaced former vineyards and orange groves. Overcrowding, too,
has diminished the allure of California.
Following the Vietnam War, the federal
government admitted many Asians from countries like Cambodia and Singapore. In
addition, a growing number of legal and illegal immigrants from Mexico, the
Caribbean, and Latin America have complicated the urban tensions that California
already faced.
Pete Wilson was elected governor of
California in 1990. A former U.S. senator and a Republican, Wilson faced
declining state revenues and serious unemployment problems. These were partly
due to the decrease of federal defense spending following the end of the Cold
War, the economic and diplomatic struggle between the United States and the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In addition, new business growth had
been affected by more stringent environmental regulations.
Many parts of California were buffeted
by serious natural disasters in the late 1980s and 1990s. Earthquakes caused
major damage in the San Francisco area in 1989 as well as east of Los Angeles in
1992, and again in the Los Angeles area in 1994. Brush fires destroyed more than
1,000 homes in southern California in 1993. By early 1995 winter storms caused
flood damage throughout the state. Extensive flooding and mudslides also
resulted from above-average rainfall in the winter of 1998 caused by El Niño, a
warming of the atmosphere and oceans that periodically disturbs weather
patterns.
Racial tensions also increased in the
1990s. In 1991 white Los Angeles police officers were videotaped while beating a
black motorist named Rodney King. When the officers were found not guilty during
their criminal trial in 1992, the acquittal set off yet another riot in
south-central Los Angeles. Some 58 people were killed and many homes and
businesses were destroyed or looted. In April 1993 a court convicted two of the
police officers for violating Rodney King’s civil rights.
Also in the 1990s, illegal immigration
from Mexico became one of the biggest political issues in California. In 1994
California voters approved the controversial Proposition 187, which was intended
to revoke the rights of illegal immigrants to state education, welfare, and
health services. The measure caused many Hispanic residents to withdraw their
support for the state’s Republican administration, which had led efforts to pass
the proposition.
Tensions also increased between
California and the Mexican government, and in February 1999 the state’s newly
elected Democratic governor, Gray Davis, visited Mexico and began efforts to
mend the rift. However, the main provisions of the proposition never took
effect. In a series of decisions a U.S. District Court judge overturned major
parts of the proposition because the regulation of immigration is a federal
rather than a state power. In July 1999 Davis reached an agreement with the
opponents of the proposition in which the state ended its appeals of the court
rulings and left the main provisions of the proposition overturned.
Racial politics have also affected
higher education in California. In the 1970s, under affirmative action policies
designed to reflect the state’s ethnic diversity, university administrators
devised complex racial preference criteria for each state university campus.
While increasing minority representation, the system prevented some top
California high school graduates from being admitted. Under the earlier (1978)
U.S. Supreme Court decision, Regents of the University of California v.
Bakke, the University of California was prohibited from creating such
racial quotas but was permitted to consider race as one factor in admissions
policies.
In 1995, however, the University of
California Board of Regents turned away from previous admissions policies
entirely when it passed a resolution eliminating programs that called for racial
and gender preferences in admissions, hiring, and the granting of outside
contracts. In 1996 a statewide challenge to affirmative action programs
throughout state government was placed on the ballot. California voters passed
the California Civil Rights Initiative, also known as Proposition 209, which
ended any preference based on gender, race, or ethnicity for state jobs, state
contracts, or admission to state schools.
California voters also passed another
statewide ballot measure, Proposition 227, which required the state’s public
schools to end most of their bilingual education programs. The proposition,
approved in 1998, ordered that schools teach classes primarily in English, but
it gave parents the right to seek a waiver from English-only instruction if
their children wished to remain in bilingual programs.
R | The 21st Century |
At the beginning of the 21st century,
California seemed to be facing a severe energy crisis. For several days in 2001
much of California endured rolling blackouts, during which power was turned off
because the state could not meet its energy needs. California’s energy problems
were a result of the state government’s decision to deregulate the electricity
industry in 1996.
Under that deregulation plan,
California’s utility companies had to sell their power-generating plants to
private companies and then buy power on the wholesale market. In the summer of
2000, the price for power on the wholesale market rose dramatically as hot
weather increased demand. However, the conditions of deregulation prohibited the
utilities from passing higher prices on to consumers until the year 2002. As a
result, the utilities began to run out of money to buy power. Banks became
increasingly reluctant to lend them money. Power-generating plants resisted
selling the utilities power because they could not pay for it.
The state struggled to deal with its
energy crisis. On top of the utilities’ problems, many power plants were taken
offline in early 2001 for repairs or maintenance. In addition, California had
not built any new power plants to accommodate its growing population and
technology industry. The state appealed to the federal government to set a limit
on wholesale market prices, but it refused.
The California Public Utility
Commission initiated rate increases despite the rate freeze until 2002, citing
the severity of the situation and state laws that granted the commission the
power to adjust rates. California considered a variety of other solutions,
including speeding up the construction of new power plants and negotiating
long-term contracts between the utilities and the power-generating plants to
control the volatility of prices. New, costly long-term contracts for
electricity and natural gas burdened the state with millions of dollars of debt.
Ultimately, by late 2001 careful public conservation of electricity and natural
gas had overcome the state’s power shortages, and it appeared that the severity
of the energy crisis had been overestimated.
In fact, an investigation by the
California Public Utilities Commission into the alleged energy shortages later
revealed that five energy companies withheld electricity they could have
produced. In 2002 the commission concluded that the withholding of electricity
contributed to an “unconscionable, unjust, and unreasonable electricity price
spike.” As a result, California state utilities paid $20 billion more for energy
in 2000 than in 1999, the head of the commission found.
The commission also cited the role of
the Enron Corporation in California’s energy crisis. In June 2003 the Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) barred Enron from selling electricity and
natural gas in the United States after probing charges that Enron manipulated
electricity prices during California’s energy shortages. In the same month the
Federal Bureau of Investigation arrested an Enron executive on charges of
manipulating the price of electricity in California. Two other Enron employees,
known as traders because they sold electricity, pleaded guilty to similar
charges. See also Enron Scandal.
R1 | The California Recall |
In 2003 petitioners in California
used a clause in the state’s constitution to force a statewide vote on
Democratic governor Gray Davis. The clause allowed for the recall, or removal,
of elected state officials before the end of their term. A wealthy Republican
politician financed the campaign to recall Davis, but the effort struck a chord
with a broad segment of California voters, who, rightly or wrongly, blamed Davis
for California’s fiscal crisis. Davis had served as governor of the state since
1999 and was reelected to a second term in 2002.
The recall ballot consisted of two
parts. The first part asked voters to decide whether to recall Davis. The second
part asked voters to choose a replacement candidate. In October 2003 a majority
of voters approved Davis’s recall, and motion-picture actor Arnold
Schwarzenegger, running as a moderate Republican, was elected governor of
California. Davis became the first California governor to be recalled and only
the second recalled governor in U.S. history. Because he was elected only to
fill the remainder of Davis’s term, Schwarzenegger had to face the voters again
in 2006. Enjoying a reputation as a moderate Republican who worked closely on
environmental issues with the legislature in the largely Democratic state,
Schwarzenegger was reelected in a landslide.
R2 | Southern California Wildfires |
In late October 2003 a series of
wildfires struck southern California in the costliest natural disaster in the
state’s history. The fires burned 300,000 hectares (742,000 acres) in Los
Angeles, Orange, and San Diego counties, killing 26 people and destroying 3,361
homes. Four years later in October 2007 one of the largest evacuations in the
state’s history took place when a half-million people in southern California
were ordered to leave their homes because of wildfires, particularly in San
Diego County. Brush fires, including one set by a young child, combined with the
region’s hot and dry Santa Ana winds to burn an area of about 210,000 hectares
(520,000 acres) or roughly 2,000 sq km (800 sq mi). Before the fires came
largely under control at month’s end, nearly 3,000 structures, mostly private
homes, were destroyed and seven people were killed.
Some fire experts and scientists
attributed the 2003 and 2007 blazes to periods of drought, the seasonal Santa
Ana winds, and abundant dry vegetation caused by the droughts and by a policy of
fire suppression that allows brush to accumulate. Some fire experts noted that
neighboring Mexico has a policy of allowing brush fires to burn out, thus
preventing the accumulation of large amounts of dry vegetation. The fire
outbreaks sparked debates on whether rapid and largely uncontrolled real estate
development in the area reinforced the need for a fire-control policy and made
the fires worse.
The History section of this article
was contributed by Andrew Rolle. The remainder of the article was contributed by
Crane S. Miller.
No comments:
Post a Comment