Boer War
I | INTRODUCTION |
Boer
War (1899-1902), conflict in southern Africa between Britain and the
allied, Afrikaner-populated Transvaal (or South African Republic) and Orange
Free State, in what is now South Africa; also known as the South African
War.
II | TENSIONS LEADING TO WAR |
Throughout the 19th century, after Britain had
acquired the Cape of Good Hope in 1814 and expanded its possessions in southern
Africa, ill feeling mounted between the Dutch-descended population, called
Afrikaners, or Boers, and British settlers. This resulted in the Afrikaner
migration called the Great Trek (1835-1843?) and the consequent establishment of
the Afrikaner republics: Natal, Orange Free State, and the South African
Republic. Natal became a British colony in 1843, but Britain granted
independence to the Transvaal territories in 1852 and to the Orange Free State
in 1854. In the late 1850s, the Transvaal territories formed the South African
Republic. The British annexed the South African Republic in 1877, but an
Afrikaner revolt restored the republic’s independence in 1881. The stage for war
was set in 1884, when gold was discovered in the Witwatersrand, a region then
encompassing parts of the southern Transvaal. The discovery lured thousands of
British miners and prospectors to settle in the area, the influx being so great
that the city of Johannesburg was created almost overnight. The Afrikaners,
primarily farmers, resented the newcomers, whom they called Uitlanders
(“foreigners”), and in token of their feeling, taxed them heavily and denied
them voting rights. The resentment on both sides grew, ultimately leading to a
revolt by the Uitlanders in Johannesburg against the Afrikaner government.
This revolt was instigated by the British
colonial statesman and financier Cecil Rhodes, then prime minister of the Cape
Colony, who desired to bring all of southern Africa into the British Empire. In
December 1895, Leander Starr Jameson, a friend of Rhodes, led a band of 600
British armed men in an unauthorized attempt to support the rebellious
Uitlanders in the South African Republic. Called the Jameson Raid, the venture
resulted in Jameson’s capture and imprisonment and in Rhodes’s resignation.
Jameson later served as premier of the Cape Colony from 1904 to 1908.
Direct negotiations to solve the South African
problem proved unfruitful, and hostility between the Afrikaners and the
Uitlanders continued unabated. The president of the South African Republic, Paul
Kruger, was unyielding in his opposition to the Uitlanders. In 1899 the recently
appointed British governor of Cape Colony, Alfred Milner, who strongly resented
the Afrikaners’ treatment of British subjects, issued orders to build up the
12,000-man British army contingent then in southern Africa. The force eventually
grew to include 500,000 men. On October 9, 1899, Kruger demanded the withdrawal
of all British troops from the Transvaal frontiers within 48 hours, with the
alternative of formal war.
III | MAJOR BATTLES |
British noncompliance with Kruger’s demands
brought immediate action, and an alliance of the South African Republic and the
Orange Free State declared war on October 12, 1899. The Afrikaner forces were
initially successful, invading Natal and Cape Colony. Within days they succeeded
in surrounding British forces at Ladysmith, Natal, and at Mafeking (now
Mafikeng) and Kimberley, Cape Colony. In December the British commander in chief
Sir Redvers H. Buller sent fresh troops to relieve besieged British forces in
three areas of the war zone: Colenso, Natal; the hills of Magersfontein on the
Orange Free State and Cape Colony borders; and the mountain range of Stormberge
in the Cape Colony. Within a week’s time, referred to as Black Week by the
British, each of the new units had been defeated by Afrikaner forces.
On January 10, 1900, the British general
Frederick S. Roberts was sent to replace Buller as commander in chief. (Buller,
however, remained to fight throughout the war.) Early in February, Roberts
ordered the British commander John D. P. French north to relieve the city of
Kimberley; French’s objective was attained four days later. Simultaneously,
Roberts undertook a northeastward march from Cape Colony into the Orange Free
State. Attacked by the Afrikaner general Piet Cronje on February 27, Roberts
fought back successfully and forced the surrender of Cronje and his troops,
altogether about 4000 men. On March 13, Roberts entered Bloemfontein, capital of
the Orange Free State. Two months later, on May 17, besieged Mafeking, defended
by troops under the command of the British soldier Robert Baden-Powell, was
relieved. Roberts captured Johannesburg on May 31 and Pretoria, the capital of
the South African Republic, on June 5. Upon these defeats, President Kruger fled
to Europe, and Roberts, believing the war to be won, returned to England in
January 1901.
IV | GUERRILLA RESISTANCE |
British satisfaction proved short-lived. Boer
leaders, among them such soldiers and future statesmen as Louis Botha and Jan
Christiaan Smuts, launched extensive and well-planned guerrilla warfare against
the occupying British troops. The fighting thus continued for the next year and
was finally quelled only through the severe tactics of the new British commander
in chief, Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener. He exhausted the enemy by devastating
the Afrikaner farms that sustained and sheltered the guerrillas, placing black
African and Afrikaner women and children in concentration camps, and building a
strategic chain of formidable iron blockhouses for his troops.
V | TREATY OF VEREENIGING |
Negotiations for peace began on March 23, 1902,
and on May 31 Afrikaner leaders signed the Treaty of Vereeniging. The settlement
provided for the end of hostilities and eventual self-government to the
Transvaal and the Orange Free State as colonies of the British Empire. Britain
agreed in turn to pay a £3 million indemnity for rehabilitation, and granted
amnesty and repatriation to Afrikaner soldiers who pledged their loyalty to the
British monarch.
In the course of the Afrikaner War, British
losses totaled about 28,000 men. Afrikaner losses were about 4000 men, plus more
than 20,000 civilians who died from disease in concentration camps. Thousands of
black Africans also died in the camps.
The Treaty of Vereeniging brought peace and
political unification to South Africa but did not erase the underlying causes
that had triggered the conflict. Even after the establishment of the Union of
South Africa in 1910, the Afrikaners, by and large, kept themselves culturally
and socially separate.
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