I | INTRODUCTION |
Belgium (French Belgique; Dutch België),
constitutional monarchy in northwestern Europe. Belgium is one of the smallest
and most densely populated European countries. It is also the most urbanized; 97
percent of its people live in urban areas. Together with Netherlands and
Luxembourg, Belgium forms the Low, or Benelux, Countries. The country’s name
comes from the Belgae, a Celtic people who lived in the region and were
conquered by Roman general Julius Caesar in 57 bc. Its capital and largest city is
Brussels.
Belgium is situated between France and the
plains of northern Europe, and it borders the North Sea. Because of its
geographic position as a crossroads of Europe, Belgium has been a major
commercial center since the Middle Ages. The North Sea has been the country’s
outlet for trade with the rest of the world. Belgium’s geographic location has
also given it strategic importance, and many battles have been fought for
control of the area. Belgium became an independent country in 1830.
Belgium is divided into three
regions—Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. In Flanders, which consists of the
provinces to the north and west of Brussels, most of the people speak Dutch
(Flemish) and are known as Flemings. In Wallonia, the provinces south and east
of Brussels, most of the people speak French and are known as Walloons. The
population of the Brussels region comes from both language groups. Each region
has a great deal of autonomy (self-rule), but friction between Flemings and
Walloons continues to the present day.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES OF BELGIUM |
Belgium is roughly triangular in shape. It is
bounded on the north by Netherlands and the North Sea, on the east by Germany
and Luxembourg, and on the south and southwest by France. Belgium has an area of
30,528 sq km (11,787 sq mi), which makes it slightly smaller than the state of
Maryland. The country is about 280 km (about 175 mi) long, measured in a
southeast-northwest direction, and about 145 km (about 90 mi) wide.
A | Natural Regions |
Belgium has three main geographic
regions: the coastal plain, the central plateau, and the Ardennes
highlands.
Belgium’s coastline, in the northwest,
stretches 66 km (41 mi) along the North Sea. A low coastal plain extends inland
16 to 48 km (10 to 30 mi). Nearest the North Sea is a low-lying area consisting
mainly of sand dunes and polders. The polders, sections of land reclaimed from
the sea and protected by dikes, were developed between the 13th and 15th
centuries. Lying farther inland is a flat pastureland drained by canals. The
coastal plain’s elevation ranges from sea level to about 20 m (65 ft).
The central plateau is a gently rolling,
slightly elevated area. Irrigated by many waterways, it contains a number of
wide, fertile valleys with a rich, alluvial soil. Caves, grottoes, and ravines
are found in parts of this area.
The Ardennes highlands, a densely wooded
plateau, extends across southeastern Belgium and into northeastern France.
Located here is Botrange, the highest peak in Belgium, with an elevation of 694
m (2,277 ft). The average elevation of the Ardennes highlands is 460 m (1,500
ft). The area is generally rocky and poorly suited to agriculture.
B | Rivers |
The chief rivers are the Schelde (known as
the Escaut in French) and the Maas (most commonly known by its French name,
Meuse). The Schelde and Meuse and their tributaries run slowly through the
central plateau to the sea in a generally southwest to northeast direction. Both
rise in France and are for the most part navigable throughout Belgium. On the
Schelde, the principal waterway of Belgium, are the ports of Antwerp and Ghent.
Although the Schelde flows through Belgium, the river meets the sea in
Netherlands. The chief tributaries of the Schelde are the Leie (Lys), Dender
(Dendre), Zenne (Senne), and Rupel rivers. The Sambre and Ourthe rivers are the
main tributaries of the Meuse.
C | Climate |
Belgium generally has a temperate climate,
with winters that are not excessively cold and with cool, rainy summers. The
climate near the sea is humid and mild. Farther inland, away from the moderating
maritime influences, a marked increase in the range of temperature occurs. In
the Ardennes highlands hot summers alternate with cold winters. Heavy rains are
confined almost exclusively to the highlands. Fog and drizzle are common, and
April and November are particularly rainy months.
In Brussels, located at the center of the
nation, the average temperatures range from -0° to 5°C (32° to 41°F) in January
and from 13° to 22°C (55° to 72°F) in July. In Oostende, on the coast, the
average range is 1° to 5°C (34° to 42°F) in January and 14° to 20°C (56° to
69°F) in July. Rainfall in Brussels is uniformly spread throughout the year,
with a yearly average of 820 mm (32 in); annual precipitation in Oostende
averages 580 mm (23 in).
D | Natural Resources |
The natural resources of Belgium are almost
entirely mineral. Coal was mined in abundance for many years, but supplies have
been exhausted and the last mine closed in the early 1990s. Copper, lead, and
zinc are still extracted and refined in Belgium.
E | Plants and Animals |
Small animals, primarily fox, badger,
pheasant, squirrel, weasel, marten, and hedgehog, are found in Belgium. Deer and
wild boar are present in the Ardennes highlands. Abundant plants include the
hyacinth, strawberry, goldenrod, periwinkle, foxglove (see Digitalis),
wild arum, and lily of the valley. Forest trees include oak, beech, elm, and
stands of pine that have been planted as part of reforestation programs.
F | Environmental Issues |
Belgium is heavily industrialized and
experiences many of the environmental problems common to other industrialized
nations. The country is a significant producer of greenhouse gases and
industrial emissions that cause acid rain. Belgium’s air quality has improved,
however, and industrial emissions have steadily decreased since the United
Nations (UN) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Sulphur Protocols were
implemented, beginning in the 1970s.
European Union (EU) directives aimed at
improving Belgium’s environmental conditions concern water treatment and water
quality, both significant issues in such an industrial center. Before these
directives were issued, the Meuse River, a major source of drinking water, had
become polluted from steel production wastes. Other rivers were polluted with
animal wastes and fertilizers. However, Belgium failed to meet EU targets set
for the early 2000s for protecting its rivers from farm pollution and for
preventing water pollution in its ports.
Some areas of Belgium’s coastal lands were
reclaimed and developed from the 13th to the 15th century. With only concrete
dikes separating them from the sea, these lands are especially threatened by
flooding. The EU predicted that flooding was likely to worsen as a result of
global warming.
Only 2.6 percent (1997) of Belgium’s land
is protected in parks and other reserves. This is a small amount when compared
with neighboring countries such as France (11.7 percent), Netherlands (6.7
percent), and Germany (27 percent).
Belgium is party to international
agreements concerning air and water pollution, biodiversity, ozone layer
protection and climate control, endangered species, hazardous wastes, and
wetlands.
III | PEOPLE OF BELGIUM |
The name Belgae was originally applied to a
Celtic (see Celts) people in Gaul who were conquered by the Romans in the
1st century bc. Later, Germanic
elements mingled with the Romanized Celtic strain. In the course of history, the
Franks, the Burgundians, the Spaniards, the Austrians, and the French have
introduced new elements into the population.
Today the people of Belgium are primarily of
two ethnic groups, the Flemings (Germanic origin) and the Walloons (Celtic
origin, probably with an admixture of Alpine elements). The most distinguishing
characteristic of these two groups is language. The Flemings speak Dutch (often
referred to by its historic regional name, Flemish), and the Walloons speak
French. The predominantly Flemish provinces are in the northern half of Belgium,
called Flanders, and the predominantly Walloon provinces are in the southern
half, called Wallonia. The capital of Brussels, an enclave within the Flanders
region, is mixed. In 1993 these three ethnolinguistic areas became official
federal regions.
Friction between Flemings and Walloons has
been a stubborn social and political problem since Belgium gained independence
in 1830. French became the official language of government after the Revolution
of 1830, which was directed against Netherlands. In the following decades
Belgian cultural life was influenced mainly by France. But this dominance, along
with Walloon social and economic domination, aroused a spirit of nationalism
among the Flemings. They agitated for the equality of their language with
French. A series of laws in the 1920s and 1930s achieved this goal.
Antagonism between the two groups increased
after World War II (1939-1945). The Belgian constitution was revised in 1971 and
1980 to provide Flemings with a greater degree of cultural and political
autonomy. Today, Flemings continue to outnumber Walloons in Belgium.
The population of Belgium is 10,403,951
(2008 estimate). Nearly 60 percent live in the Flanders region. The overall
population density, one of the highest in Europe, is 344 persons per sq km (890
per sq mi). The largest concentrations were in the Brussels, Antwerp, Liège, and
Ghent (Gent) industrial areas, as well as in the narrow industrial region
between Mons and Charleroi. In recent decades the Limbourg city region has
increased in population because of industrial expansion in that area. Almost 10
percent of all Belgians live in Brussels, which is also home to vast numbers of
foreign guest workers. Some 97 percent of the population is classified as
urban.
A | Principal Cities |
Belgium is highly urbanized. The chief
cities and their 2007 populations are Brussels (145,917), Antwerp (466,203),
Ghent (235,143), Charleroi (201,550), and Liège (188,907).
The larger cities of Belgium are generally
fascinating combinations of old and new, where ancient guild halls, churches,
and houses contrast with modern office buildings, apartment houses, and
factories. Brussels, the capital, is famous for its beauty, boulevards,
restaurants, and stores. The Grand-Place, a square in the center of Brussels, is
surrounded by fine examples of medieval and Renaissance architecture, recalling
the opulent splendors of an earlier time. Antwerp, a Flemish city, first
developed as a major port in the 15th century and remains today one of the
busiest ports in Europe. Ghent was a center of the Flemish lace and textile
industries and a commercial port during the Middle Ages. The old part of the
town, with its many waterways and bridges and medieval and Renaissance
buildings, attracts thousands of tourists each year. Charleroi grew up near
large coal deposits. Today, Charleroi and Liège are industrial centers.
B | Language |
A law passed in 1963 established three
official languages within Belgium: Dutch was recognized as the official language
in the north, French in the south, and German along the eastern border. In the
city and suburbs of Brussels, both French and Dutch are officially recognized,
although French speakers are the larger group. In the country as a whole,
strictly Dutch speakers make up about 56 percent, and French speakers 32 percent
of the population. Only 1 percent of the people speak German, while some 11
percent speak more than one language. In 1971 a constitutional change was
enacted giving political recognition to these three linguistic communities,
providing cultural autonomy for them, and also revising the administrative
status of Brussels.
C | Religion |
About 80 percent of the Belgian
population is Roman Catholic. Religious liberty is guaranteed, and part of the
stipend for the ministers of all faiths is paid by the government. Other
religions practiced within the country include Islam, a number of Protestant
denominations, and Judaism.
D | Education |
Although educational freedom was provided
by the constitution of 1831, the first law for public elementary education was
not passed until 1842. In 1914 compulsory attendance was enacted for children
between the ages of 6 and 14; compulsory schooling now extends to age 18. Since
1959 the education system has included state secular schools and private Roman
Catholic schools. A number of children attend private schools, most of them
under the control of the Catholic Church. Educational controversies involving
language and religion that arose in Belgium in the 19th century have continued
to the present day. Almost the entire adult population is literate.
The oldest and most prestigious Belgian
university dates from the Middle Ages: The Catholic University of Leuven was
founded under religious auspices in 1425. Since 1970 it has been divided into
independent French- and Dutch-speaking universities, as has the Free University
of Brussels. The latter university opened in 1834 under an enactment by the
newly formed Belgian government. The universities of Ghent and Liège were
founded in 1817 during the period of Dutch rule. Ghent has a Dutch-speaking
faculty, Liège a French-speaking one. In 1965 state universities opened in the
cities of Mons and Antwerp; French is the language of instruction at Mons, and
Dutch is used at Antwerp.
Royal academies of fine arts and royal
conservatories of music are maintained in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and
Mons. A state agricultural institute is maintained in Gembloux and a technical
institute in Mons.
D1 | Libraries and Museums |
General and specialized libraries are
located in all the principal cities. The main reference collection is the
Belgian National Library (1837) in Brussels, with some 5 million volumes. Large
libraries are maintained by the universities of Ghent, Liège, and Leuven.
The Royal Museums of Fine Arts in
Brussels include the Museum of Ancient Art, with collections of paintings,
drawings, and sculptures from the 15th to the 18th centuries, and the Museum of
Modern Art, with works from the 19th century to the present. The Brussels house
of Belgian architect Victor Horta, now a museum, exemplifies the
turn-of-the-century art nouveau style. The Royal Institute for Natural Sciences
in Brussels has an extensive paleontology collection.
The Royal Museum of Fine Arts in
Antwerp is noted for its collection of paintings by Flemish painter Peter Paul
Rubens. The Rubens House in Antwerp is also a museum. Museums in Brugge and
Ghent have collections of early Flemish art, and Brugge has a museum devoted to
the paintings of Hans Memling.
D2 | Literature |
The National Theater (1945) in Brussels
is supported by state subsidies. Belgium has contributed to both Flemish and
French literature. Among the outstanding authors of the country are Philippe de
Comines and Jean Froissart, who wrote in French during the Middle Ages. The
works of Charles de Coster and Émile Verhaeren, both of whom wrote in French,
and of Hendrik Conscience, who developed the Flemish novel, were popular during
the 19th century. Poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck, who wrote in French,
won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. See Flemish Literature; French
Literature. Important Belgian writers of the later 20th century include the
novelist, poet, and playwright Hugo Claus and novelists Françoise Mallet-Joris
and Amélie Nothomb.
D3 | Art |
During the 15th and 16th centuries,
northern Europe was one of the centers of the Renaissance. Flemish painters
Hubert van Eyck and Jan van Eyck, Hieronymus Bosch, and Pieter Bruegel the Elder
were among the outstanding artists of this period. Dominant in the 17th century
were Rubens and Sir Anthony van Dyck, who are regarded by many as two of the
greatest Flemish painters. Among 20th-century painters and graphic artists of
international fame are James Ensor, Paul Delvaux, and René Magritte. Belgian
architect Victor Horta was one of the originators of the art nouveau style of
architecture, which had an important influence on European architects of the
20th century. Modern Belgian architecture is represented by the designs of Henry
van de Velde.
E | Recreation |
Cycling is a popular recreational
activity and competitive sport in Belgium. The country’s relatively flat terrain
is well-suited to cycling, and trails and tracks abound. Belgium’s Eddie Merckx
is considered one of the greatest cyclists of all times. Hiking, fishing, and
canoeing are popular in the Ardennes in warmer months, with skiing and
tobogganing drawing visitors to the region in the winter.
Belgium’s national sport is soccer, and
its team is called the Diables Rouges (Red Devils). Tennis gained in popularity
as two Belgian women players, Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin-Hardenne,
established themselves as stars in the early 2000s.
Fairs and festivals play an important
part in Belgian life. Fairs, usually known by the Flemish name of
kermesse, are held in nearly all the cities and towns of the country
during the summer months. On a larger scale, ten world’s fairs have been held in
Belgium, the most recent in 1958. There are also many local festivals, often
associated with religious observances. One of the most famous festivals is the
three-day carnival at Binche, near Mons, held just before Lent. During the
carnival, noisemaking and dancing are led by “Gilles,” men dressed in high,
plumed hats and bright costumes. Another famous pageant is the Procession of the
Holy Blood, held in Brugge in May. December 6 commemorates Saint Nicholas’s Day,
an important children’s holiday.
IV | ECONOMY OF BELGIUM |
Although the service economy has grown
rapidly in Belgium, the country remains heavily industrialized, importing raw
materials that are processed mainly for export. With about three-quarters of
exports going to other European Union (EU) countries, Belgium’s economy is
dependent upon its neighbors and the nation is a strong proponent of integrating
European economies.
In the early 1980s and early 1990s a growing
budget deficit, combined with high unemployment rates, hindered Belgium’s
overall economic growth. To reduce its deficit, the government initiated an
austerity program in the 1980s that cut spending while raising taxes, as well as
beginning a program to transfer some state-owned enterprises to the private
sector. By the early 2000s the government presented balanced budgets, and the
economy was growing at a faster rate than the EU average. However, Belgium’s
public debt remained huge, and unemployment remained high. The budget in 2006
anticipated revenues of $162.2 billion and expenditures of $163.1 billion. Gross
domestic product (GDP) in 2006 totaled $394 billion. GDP is a measure of the
total value of goods and services a country produces. Service industries account
for 75 percent of Belgium’s GDP and employ 73 percent of the workers. Trade and
transport rank among the country’s leading service industries.
Brussels is the headquarters of the
European Union and of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
therefore home to many diplomats and foreign residents. Many firms and
governments maintain offices in Brussels for access to European Community
decision-makers, and the capital’s real estate, hotel, restaurant, and
entertainment industries bring in sizable foreign earnings.
A | Agriculture |
Belgium has favorable conditions for
agriculture: moderate temperatures, evenly distributed precipitation, and a long
growing season. For centuries much of Belgium, especially the Flanders plain,
was an area of intensive cultivation. Today, about 28 percent of the country is
under cultivation. Farming engages only 2 percent of the total labor force, but
it produces sufficient quantities to make Belgium a net food exporter. About
two-thirds of the farms are intensively cultivated units of less than 10
hectares (25 acres).
In 2006 the leading crops were sugar beets
(5.7 million metric tons), potatoes (2.6 million), wheat (1.6 million), and
barley (367,348). Other important crops included fruits, tomatoes, and flax.
Livestock and dairy farming are major agricultural industries. In 2006 the
livestock population of Belgium numbered some 6.3 million pigs, 2.7 million
cattle, 153,976 sheep, and 34,799 horses.
B | Forestry and Fishing |
Forests cover 22 percent of the area of
Belgium, and wooded areas are used primarily for recreational purposes. In
recent years, stands of conifers have been planted, and forestry activity has
increased; however, timber is still imported for the country’s paper
industry.
The main fishing port of Belgium is
Oostende. The fishing fleet exploits the North Atlantic Ocean fisheries from the
North Sea to Iceland. The total annual catch in 2005 amounted to 25,767 metric
tons; most of it consisted of plaice, sole, and cod.
C | Mining |
Belgium has very limited mineral
resources. Coal was the chief mining product for much of the 20th century, but
deposits were severely depleted by the 1950s. In the 1980s many of the mines
were closed, and the last remaining coal mine was shut down in 1992. Coal and
oil must now be imported for steelmaking and other industries.
D | Manufacturing |
Belgium was the first country on the
European continent to industrialize, following the lead of Britain in the
industrial revolution. It remains one of the most highly industrialized
countries of Europe, largely because of its geographical location and transport
facilities. Industrial production increased steadily after World War II
(1939-1945) but began to decline in the 1970s, when recession and obsolescence
began seriously to erode many traditional sectors. Wallonia, which had been the
center of the country’s traditional industries, was hit hard, while newer,
lighter industries such as electronics developed in Flanders. In 2004
manufacturing accounted for only 17 percent of total economic activity.
Belgium is still a major producer of iron
and steel, although production has fallen since the 1970s. About 11 million
metric tons of crude steel were produced annually in the early 2000s. Belgium
also has an old and important nonferrous metal industry. It was, for example,
Europe’s largest zinc producer into the 1990s, although several European
countries have since surpassed Belgium in zinc production. Belgium also
furnishes metallurgical, chemical, and other industries with copper, lead, tin,
and uranium. The availability of steel and nonferrous metals has encouraged the
manufacture of heavy equipment, especially at Liège, Antwerp, and Brussels.
Products include machine tools, railroad cars, diesel engines, pumps, and other
industrial equipment.
The Belgian chemical industry began to
develop in the 20th century and has become the country’s second largest
manufacturing industry. Like other heavy industries, it was stimulated by the
availability of coal, which was used both for energy and as the raw material for
such coal derivatives as benzol and tar. In the second half of the 20th century,
petrochemicals, plastics, and pharmaceuticals gained in importance as coal
mining declined. Antwerp has become a major petrochemical center.
The textile industry, dating from the
Middle Ages, produces cottons, woolens, linens, and synthetic textiles. With the
exception of flax, all raw materials are imported. But as world competition
increased in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, textiles were produced more
cheaply elsewhere. As a result, Belgium’s textile industry suffered; many plants
closed or relocated, and textile production declined. Traditional Belgian
handicrafts industries, such as lacemaking and tapestries, began their decline
much earlier, but some still operate to cater to tourists. Brussels and Brugge
were long noted for the manufacture of lace and damask.
Antwerp is the leading diamond-cutting
center in the world. It replaced Amsterdam in that role after World War II and
today produces about 70 percent of the world’s finished diamonds.
E | Energy |
Belgium’s 7 nuclear power plants are the
main source of electricity, supplying 57 percent of the country’s electric
power. With the decline of the coal-mining industry, Belgium has been forced to
rely on imported coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Since the 1980s environmental
concerns about nuclear power (see Nuclear Energy) have led to greater
reliance on renewable energy sources, such as solar power, biomass, and
geothermal technologies; a gas-powered generator was also constructed.
Legislation approved in 2003 calls for Belgium to close its seven nuclear
reactors between 2015 and 2025. This means that Belgium will have to find a
replacement for about two-fifths of its energy supply. Total electric power
production was 79 billion kilowatt-hours in 2003.
F | Currency and Banking |
The monetary unit of Belgium is the single
currency of the European Union (EU), the euro (0.80 euros equal U.S. $1;
2006 average). Belgium is among 12 EU member states to adopt the euro. The euro
was introduced on January 1, 1999, for electronic transfers and accounting
purposes only, and Belgium’s national currency, the Belgian franc, was
used for other purposes. On January 1, 2002, euro-denominated coins and bills
went into circulation, and the Belgian franc ceased to be legal tender.
As a participant in the single currency,
Belgium must follow economic policies established by the European Central Bank
(ECB). The ECB is located in Frankfurt, Germany, and is responsible for all EU
monetary policies, which include setting interest rates and regulating the money
supply. On January 1, 1999, control over Belgian monetary policy was transferred
from the Belgian central bank, the National Bank of Belgium, to the ECB. The
National Bank of Belgium joined the national banks of the other EU countries
that adopted the euro as part of the European System of Central Banks
(ESCB).
G | Foreign Trade |
Belgium is a major trading country. It is
located on the trade route from major European industrial areas to the North
Sea. Additionally, it needs raw materials to supply its factories and markets to
absorb its excess production. Belgium has historically tried to follow a policy
of free trade, but the need for protection led it to join with Luxembourg in a
customs and currency union in 1922. In 1948 a customs union was established
between the two countries and Netherlands. It was extended in 1958 into an
agreement for full economic integration. In 1960 the Benelux Economic Union
became operative, establishing free movement of labor, capital, and services
between the three countries. Belgium strongly supported further European
economic integration in the EU.
In 2003 Belgium’s exports were valued at
$255 billion. Principal commodities were automobiles and other vehicles,
chemicals and pharmaceuticals, food and food products, nonferrous metals, iron
and steel, diamonds, and petroleum products. Annual imports in 2003 had a value
of $235 billion. Principal commodities were machinery, chemicals, food products,
petroleum and petroleum products, vehicles, rough diamonds, and clothing and
accessories. Belgium’s major trading partners were Germany, France, Netherlands,
the United Kingdom, the United States, and Italy.
Belgium became a member of the European
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. Six years later, Belgium, France, West
Germany, Italy, Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed two treaties creating the
European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community
(Euratom). In 1967 the ECSC, the EEC, and Euratom merged to form the European
Community, now the European Union, with headquarters in Brussels.
H | Transportation |
As a center of trade, Belgium has an
excellent transportation system, composed of waterways, railroad networks, and
highways. The chief access to the sea for Belgian shipping is via the Schelde
and Meuse estuaries, which lie within the territory of Netherlands. Antwerp, on
the Schelde River, although some 84 km (52 mi) from the sea, is one of the
busiest ports in Europe. Antwerp is also the transit harbor for the Rhineland
and northern France. Because of their slow currents and regular flow, the rivers
of Belgium are generally navigable and provide easy communication between
regions. The Belgian rivers are connected by an important system of canals. The
aggregate length of canals and navigable rivers totals about 1,520 km (about 940
mi).
Supplementing the waterways is a system
of 150,567 km (93,558 mi) of roads. There are 3,542 km (2,201 mi) of railroad
track, which are state owned. Belgium has one of the world’s densest railroad
systems. Sabena was the Belgian national airline until it filed for bankruptcy
in 2001. SN Brussels Airline succeeded Sabena the following year.
I | Communications |
French- and Dutch-language broadcast
services are provided by the government, with costs defrayed through annual
license fees on receiving sets; commercial broadcasting is also permitted. Each
of the language communities regulates its own broadcasts. Many foreign
broadcasts are also received. Some 29 daily newspapers are published. Newspapers
appear in the Dutch, French, and German languages.
J | Tourism |
Tourists come to Belgium to enjoy its
picturesque cities, some of which date to the Middle Ages; its artistic
treasures; and its food. Brugge (Bruges) has a medieval center and
well-preserved houses along a system of canals. Ghent’s medieval core is
arranged around several open squares. Visitors to Brussels flock to the
Grand-Place, with its ornate Renaissance and baroque buildings, and to the
city’s many museums. Antwerp, Belgium’s chief port, also has a historic center.
Oostende is the most popular beach resort in Belgium, and the Ardennes region is
popular with outdoor enthusiasts. Among the artistic treasures are works by
Flemish painters Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Hans Memling, Pieter
Bruegel, Hieronymus Bosch, and Peter Paul Rubens. Belgium’s fine cuisine
attracts gourmets. Many of the national specialties are based on seafood,
including eel dishes and mussels cooked in white wine, or on foods cooked in
beer. Belgian chocolates are internationally famous.
V | GOVERNMENT OF BELGIUM |
Belgium is a constitutional, representative,
and hereditary monarchy. Succession to the throne is determined by
primogeniture. The present ruler is King Albert II, who came to the throne in
1993. The Belgian constitution was promulgated in 1831 and revised in 1893,
1921, 1970, 1971, 1980, 1989, 1993, and 2001. The reforms of the 1970s and
afterward gradually transformed Belgium into a federal state, giving the
majority of essential governmental powers to the three regions: Flanders,
Wallonia, and Brussels.
A | Executive |
Executive power is vested in the king, who
appoints the prime minister, cabinet ministers, and judges. The king is
commander in chief of the armed forces and, with the approval of parliament, has
the power to declare war and conclude treaties. The rights of the king,
according to the constitution, include convening and dissolving parliament,
conferring titles of nobility, and granting pardons. All royal acts, however,
must be countersigned by a minister, who in turn assumes responsibility for
those acts before parliament. Inasmuch as the ministers are responsible to
parliament, the king must choose a cabinet that represents a majority in
parliament. Cabinets are generally multiparty coalitions.
B | Legislature |
Under constitutional changes that took
effect with the parliamentary elections of 1995, both houses of the Belgian
parliament were reduced in size. The Senate was scaled back from 184 members to
71, while the Chamber of Representatives dropped from 212 members to 150. All
members of the Chamber of Representatives are directly elected, while the
Senate’s membership is elected through a combination of direct and indirect
methods. All citizens more than 18 years of age are required to vote in
parliamentary elections and may be fined for not doing so.
C | Political Parties |
The three major political alliances, each
consisting of Dutch- and French-speaking units, are the Christian Democrat
parties (1945), the Socialist parties (1885), and the Liberal parties, including
the Flemish Liberals and Democrats-Citizens’ Party (Dutch, 1961) and the Liberal
Reformation Party (French, 1979). There are many minor parties.
D | Local Government |
Belgium is divided into the three federal
regions of Brussels (population, 2007 estimate, 1,031,215), Flanders
(6,117,440), and Wallonia (3,435,879). These regions are further subdivided into
the ten provinces of Antwerpen, Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant, East Flanders,
Hainaut, Liège, Limbourg, Luxembourg, Namur, and West Flanders, and into nearly
600 communes (administrative districts).
Belgium has devised a two-tiered system of
regional government to address political and cultural differences. Each of the
three federal regions elects its own council, which is responsible for
territorial matters such as planning, transportation, water, energy,
municipalities, and regional development. In 2001 the regions were given greater
authority over taxation and expenditure. There are also independent language
councils for the Dutch-, French-, and German-speaking communities. These
councils are in charge of education, health care, and communications (such as
broadcasting) for the communities.
Each of the ten provinces has a council of
50 to 90 members who are chosen by direct vote. The provinces are subdivided
into administrative districts, often based in cities and towns, called communes.
Each commune is administered by a burgomaster appointed by the king. The town
council, directly elected to six-year terms, advises the king on this
appointment. The council elects an executive body called the board of aldermen.
Local government on all levels possesses a large degree of autonomy, a tradition
that originated in feudal times.
E | Judiciary |
The Belgian constitution provides for an
independent judiciary with powers equal to those of the executive and
legislative departments. The highest tribunals are the five courts of appeal,
which sit at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and Mons; the five labor courts;
and the Supreme Court of Justice. Cases are referred to the courts of appeal by
the courts of assize, which review both civil and criminal matters. In the
assize courts 12 jurors decide all cases by majority vote. A special court was
established in 1989 to resolve constitutional conflicts arising from the
transfer of power from the central government to regional authorities.
F | Defense |
Belgium is a founding member of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which has its headquarters in Brussels.
Recruitment in Belgium’s armed forces is made by voluntary enlistment. Military
training methods and equipment are coordinated with those of Netherlands under
an agreement of 1948. The Belgian armed forces, which include a navy, army, and
air force, stood at 36,900 in 2004. Large force reductions took place during the
1990s.
VI | HISTORY OF BELGIUM |
Although the modern country of Belgium was
founded in 1830, the history of the peoples and the territory of the southern
Low Countries reaches back to the Roman period. Around 50 bc Roman general Julius Caesar named the
territory of the Belgae he had conquered Gallia Belgica (Belgian Gaul). The
Roman region of Gallia Belgica included modern Belgium, northern France,
Netherlands, and part of Switzerland.
Rome’s successor in western Europe was the
kingdom of the Franks, which originated in Belgian Gaul and expanded into
Germany, eventually extending from the Pyrenees eastward across the Alps and
southward as far as Rome itself. The Franks were led by Charlemagne, who united
all of western Europe through conquest during his reign from 768 to 814. When
the Frankish realm was partitioned in 843, Belgium was incorporated in the duchy
of Lorraine, which was part of Francia Orientalis (the East Frankish Kingdom, or
Germany). In the extreme west of this realm arose the county of Flanders, which
was a fief of the kings of France.
The Middle Ages, and especially the 12th
and 13th centuries, were a period of intensive commercial development throughout
the southern Low Countries. The merchant class rose to great prosperity, and
cities flourished. In Flanders the cloth trade was the basis of the wealth and
growing independence of such cities as Brugge, Ghent, and Ypres. Liège grew rich
on the profits of its iron forges and arms manufacture. Wealthy merchants and
powerful guilds vied with each other in endowing public works such as the
belfries, guildhalls, and churches that are still the pride of many Belgian
cities.
The most important of the medieval states
in what is now Belgium was Flanders. In the early Middle Ages the counts of
Flanders succeeded in establishing themselves as independent rulers, although
the king of France was the theoretical overlord of the region. At the end of the
13th century Flanders was annexed by King Philip IV of France. French rule was
welcomed by some of the Flemish nobility but was bitterly resented by the
merchants and craftsmen in the cities. In 1302 the craftsmen of Brugge massacred
the French garrison of the city. In the same year an army of Flemish townsmen
inflicted a crushing defeat on the French in the Battle of Courtrai. It is
sometimes called the Battle of the Spurs because the Flemings collected the
spurs of the dead French knights as trophies. However, the French later gained
control over Flanders. During the Hundred Years' War between France and England,
the Flemings rebelled under the leadership of Ghent and allied themselves with
England, but in 1382 were decisively defeated.
In 1384 Flanders was united with Burgundy,
and by the mid-15th century the dukes of Burgundy ruled the greater part of the
Belgian and Dutch Netherlands. Flanders continued to enjoy great prosperity, and
the great age of Flemish art began. While owing allegiance to the French crown,
Burgundy’s aim was to found a powerful state between France and Germany. This
effort was disrupted by the death in 1477 of the last Burgundian ruler, Charles
the Bold.
A | Habsburg Rule |
By the marriage in 1477 of Mary of
Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, to the German prince Maximilian (later
Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I), all of the rich Burgundian realm except the
duchy itself passed to the control of the Habsburg family. Maximilian’s
grandson, Charles, inherited Netherlands (which included present-day Belgium) in
1506. Charles ascended the throne of Spain in 1516 and later became Holy Roman
Emperor Charles V. In 1549 he decreed that Netherlands be formally joined to the
possessions of Spain.
Philip II of Spain, Charles’s successor,
tried to suppress Protestantism and forbade all trade between his subjects and
the outside world. Many of the inhabitants of the northern Low Countries had
converted to Protestantism during the Reformation, and religious feeling
intensified with Roman Catholic Spain. Philip’s policies provoked a rebellion in
Netherlands that began in 1566. This upheaval was partly a religious and
economic struggle and partly an attempt to preserve local traditions of
self-government. Spanish armies were defeated, but the strife between the
predominantly Catholic south and the Protestant north continued. In 1581 seven
northern provinces (Gelderland, Friesland, Holland, Groningen, Overijssel,
Utrecht, and Zeeland) declared their independence as the United Provinces of The
Netherlands, while the southern provinces (Belgium) remained loyal to
Spain.
Philip II continued to pursue reconquest
of the north without success. In 1609, with neither side capable of a decisive
victory, Philip III of Spain signed a 12-year truce with the rebels. By the time
this accord expired, the Thirty Years' War was raging, and the Spanish
Netherlands was once again a battleground. In 1635 the Dutch and the French
joined forces to divide the Spanish Netherlands, but still could not dislodge
the Spaniards. A succession of Franco-Dutch victories finally forced the Spanish
king, Philip IV, to accept a separate peace with the Dutch in 1648. The south,
present-day Belgium and Luxembourg, remained a Spanish domain. By the Treaty of
Münster, the Dutch gained some territory on their southern border, notably
Maastricht, and Spain agreed to close off shipping from the Schelde River, which
flowed through Dutch territory but which was Antwerp’s sole outlet to the sea.
The great port city, a center of commerce, thus entered a period of
decline.
France, with a growing coalition of
European powers, continued the war with Spain. Throughout his long reign the
French king, Louis XIV, refused to abandon his quest for the Spanish
Netherlands. By the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, France gained several
frontier areas, and through subsequent conquests won possession of additional
towns. The Spanish Netherlands became an important pawn in the next major
European conflict, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). A settlement
concluded at Utrecht (see Peace of Utrecht) in 1713 gave France part of
Flanders, including Dunkerque and Lille. The bulk of the territory, however,
came under the control of the Habsburg rulers of Austria, with a stipulation
that its fortresses on the French border be garrisoned by the Dutch. Until the
end of the 18th century the area was generally known as the Austrian
Netherlands.
During the War of the Austrian Succession
in 1744, the country was occupied by the French, but it was restored to Austria
by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Except for this invasion, Belgium’s
Austrian era was initially peaceful. This tranquility was disrupted in 1781 when
the Austrian emperor, Joseph II, decided to raze the border fortresses and
reopen the Schelde estuary. The Dutch mounted an effective blockade and again
closed the river to trade. Then, in 1787, as part of his effort to centralize
the administration of the far-flung Habsburg domains, Joseph abolished
provincial autonomy in the Austrian Netherlands. The loss of local control led
to a general uprising, which coincided with the outbreak of the French
Revolution (1789-1799). Most of the Austrian garrisons were forced to
capitulate, and on January 11, 1790, a Belgian republic was proclaimed.
Quarrels between social and religious
factions shook the new state from the outset, and within a year of Joseph’s
death in 1790, his successor as Austrian emperor, Leopold II, reestablished
control. A conciliatory and enlightened ruler, he revoked his predecessor’s
decrees, but the new regime won little popular support. After Leopold was
succeeded by Francis II in 1792, Austria became embroiled in war with the
revolutionary government of France. Belgium was twice occupied by the French
army, and the country was formally ceded to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio
in 1797.
B | French and Dutch Rule |
The regime installed by the French was
generally unpopular, but Belgium profited from French rule. It expanded in area
after France conquered the prosperous city of Liège and annexed it to Belgian
territory. Economically, after the French opened the Schelde River to shipping,
Antwerp’s trade revived. New markets were also opened for local industry.
In 1814 the country was occupied by armies
of the nations ranged against Napoleon Bonaparte. The next year the Battle of
Waterloo, the last great battle of the Napoleonic Wars, was fought on Belgian
soil.
In 1815 the Congress of Vienna assembled
to redraw the map of Europe in the wake of Napoleon’s defeat. The peace
settlement adopted at the Congress again united Belgium and Netherlands, this
time under a Dutch king, William I. Catholic Belgium, however, did not want a
Protestant ruler, even though the country prospered under the Dutch. The
outbreak of a revolution in France in July 1830 (see July Revolution)
inspired a Belgian uprising in August. Dutch troops were driven from Brussels,
and on October 4 a coalition of the normally antagonistic Catholics and Liberals
proclaimed Belgian independence. The great powers—Austria, France, Britain,
Prussia, and Russia—accepted Belgian independence, and the Dutch were unable to
overcome such a formidable group.
C | Independence and Neutrality |
The Belgians drew up a constitution
providing for a bicameral legislature elected by male property owners and a king
whose executive acts had to be countersigned by a responsible minister. They
chose as their monarch Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He was a model
constitutional monarch whose political skills enabled him to wield considerable
power at home, and to become an influential figure among Europe’s rulers. The
Dutch finally agreed to recognize Belgium in 1839 and a peace treaty was signed.
In the settlement, half of Luxembourg became a Belgian province, while the Dutch
were awarded nominal control of the remainder of the Grand Duchy, as well as
Limbourg east of the Meuse River. In its most important provision, the European
powers confirmed Belgium as an “independent and perpetually neutral state”
(Neutrality).
Even after the internal alliance of
Catholics and anticlerical Liberals disintegrated, Belgian constitutionalism
survived. The economic decline that followed the separation from Dutch markets
was halted by Europe’s first national program of railway construction, which
connected all major Belgian towns by 1840. Belgium was the first country in
continental Europe to industrialize, and had become politically and economically
viable by 1865, when Leopold I died and was succeeded by his son.
Under Leopold II, Belgium faced many
domestic problems. Liberals and Catholics fought over control of education,
finally agreeing to let local governments decide whether or not to subsidize
parochial schools. By the 1880s industrialization and population density—the
greatest in Europe—had produced appalling living conditions in the cities. As
the rural labor force shrank and the number of people engaged in industry
tripled, the government enacted legislation to improve housing and working
conditions. The workers, who still could not vote, began organizing to obtain
political equality. An 1893 general strike forced parliament to institute
universal adult male suffrage, modified to give more than one vote to university
graduates, men over age 50, and property owners.
Another domestic problem was the lack of a
common language. The country’s inhabitants were divided between Dutch-speaking
Flemings in Antwerp, East and West Flanders, and Limbourg, and French-speaking
Walloons in the remaining provinces; the province of Brabant, which included
Brussels, contained speakers of both languages. Flemings outnumbered Walloons,
but French was the language of the upper classes who controlled much of
Belgium’s wealth. Thus, Walloon interests were disproportionately represented in
the government, and only the small segment of the Flemish who were bilingual
could participate equally. The passage of a law granting universal manhood
suffrage (voting rights) began to redress this imbalance and forced the
government to accord equality to both languages when transacting official
business.
Early in his reign Leopold II personally
financed an expedition up the Congo River in Africa and acquired personal
control of the vast Congo basin. At the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884
and 1885 he was recognized as sovereign of the Congo Free State, as the land was
called. The Congo Free State supplied Belgium with incalculable wealth in raw
materials. After 1900, however, reports of mistreatment of the native Africans
outraged Belgian public opinion and led to legislation in 1908 transferring
control of this royal enterprise to the state. From 1908 until independence in
1960, it was known as the Belgian Congo.
As the outbreak of war seemed imminent in
Europe, Belgium’s neutral status caused a domestic controversy over the military
budget. Advocates of preparedness opposed those who believed that the nation’s
neutrality rendered most armaments unnecessary. In 1909, when Albert I ascended
the throne, he warned that the army was not strong enough to defend the country.
The Catholic-led government used an electoral victory in 1912 to increase draft
quotas, over the opposition of Liberals and Socialists.
D | World War I |
On August 4, 1914, one week after World
War I began, German troops crossed the frontier into Belgium, ignoring its
neutral status. The government resisted invasion and appealed to France,
Britain, and Russia for aid. The Belgian army put up a heroic defense against
overpowering forces; for four years its troops held on to a sliver of Belgian
territory between the Yser River and the French border. The Germans, meanwhile,
carried on a ruthless occupation of Belgium, confiscating property and deporting
civilians. Although they attempted to capitalize on language divisions by
establishing separate Flemish and Walloon administrations, only a small minority
of Flemings collaborated with the invaders. A million Belgians fled the country.
As the war dragged on, more than 80,000 soldiers and civilians died.
The major Allied offensive that began on
September 28, 1918, liberated the entire Belgian coast and led the Germans to
agree to an armistice and to withdrawal on the Allies’ terms. The shooting war
was finally over. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded
Eupen-et-Malmédy, and Moresnet to Belgium, adding 989.3 sq km (382 sq mi) and
some 64,500 inhabitants to the kingdom.
After the war Belgium was faced with the
task of rebuilding the devastated areas. Although the damage was enormous, the
country made a remarkable recovery. Another consequence of World War I for
Belgium was the discrediting of the policy of neutrality. Belgium effectively
renounced its neutrality in 1920 by signing a military alliance with France. In
1925 it became a party to the Locarno treaties, in which Britain, France,
Germany, and Italy guaranteed the boundaries of Belgium and affirmed its right
to form defensive treaties. Ruanda-Urundi was created from part of a former
German colony in East Africa in 1923 and placed under Belgian control by the
League of Nations.
E | World War II |
In 1936, after France failed to oppose
German remilitarization of the Rhineland, Belgium again returned to neutrality
with the understanding that Britain and France would assist in its defense
against foreign aggression. Nevertheless, Belgium was attacked for a second time
by Germany on May 10, 1940, early in World War II. Without warning or ultimatum,
Belgian airfields, railroad stations, and communications centers were bombed by
German planes, and German armored units rolled across the border. The army and
the French and British troops that came to Belgium’s aid were overwhelmed by the
superior might of the invading forces.
By May 26, 1940, the Allies had been
pushed into a narrow beachhead around Dunkerque, France, near the Belgian
border. King Leopold III surrendered his remaining forces unconditionally on May
28 and was taken prisoner. The Belgian cabinet, which had fled to Paris, refused
to acknowledge defeat, declaring the king’s surrender “illegal and
unconstitutional.” On May 30 the ministers voted to divest the king of all
powers and of the right to rule, a decision supported by the Belgian parliament.
After the fall of France, the Belgian government moved to London; it returned to
Brussels on September 8, 1944. Later that month parliament elected Leopold’s
brother, Prince Charles, as regent.
F | Postwar Belgium |
Although Belgium was in better economic
condition after World War II than after World War I, it was politically
disorganized because of a conflict between the Christian Democrat parties and a
coalition of Liberals, Socialists, and Communists. Intensifying the political
struggle was the question concerning King Leopold, who had remained in Austria
awaiting determination of his future. Despite pressure from the Christian
Democrat parties (now strengthened by the enfranchisement of women), which
favored the return of the king, the Belgian parliament in the summer of 1945
extended indefinitely the regency of Prince Charles, virtually exiling the king
because of his alleged defeatism in 1940.
While the struggle for political control
continued, Belgium regained much of its former position as one of the world’s
great trading nations. Industrial areas in the south were modernized, and
Antwerp’s port facilities were expanded. Rich uranium deposits from the Congo,
which were of particular value in the nuclear age, added to Belgium’s postwar
prosperity.
G | Royal Controversy |
On March 12, 1950, after more than a year
of successive governmental crises brought on by the controversy over the king,
the Belgian electorate went to the polls in an advisory plebiscite on the
question of Leopold’s return. A slight majority of the voters favored the return
of the king from exile, but his attempt to resume power led to strikes,
demonstrations, and riots. Leopold agreed to abdicate in 1951, when his son
reached the age of 21. Baudouin was proclaimed king the day after Leopold’s
abdication.
H | European Cooperation |
The 1950s were marked by the concentrated
effort of European leaders to effect a political and economic union of the
Western European nations. Taking an active role in this movement, Belgium, along
with France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and Netherlands, became a charter
member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952. The efforts of
Belgian Foreign Minister Paul Henri Spaak were instrumental in the founding in
1957 of the European Economic Community (EEC). Brussels became the seat of its
governing commission and much of its bureaucracy, reflecting the key role that
Spaak played in shaping the new European order. In 1967 the ECSC, the EEC, and
Euratom merged to form the European Community, now called the European
Union.
I | Crises of Empire and Nation |
In 1960 uprisings in the Belgian Congo
forced Belgium to withdraw from its African empire. On June 30, 1960, King
Baudouin proclaimed the independence of the colony (now the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, DRC). In 1962 the Belgian-administered UN trust territory of
Ruanda-Urundi achieved independence as two states, Rwanda and Burundi. The
Belgian Congo was a source of great wealth for Belgium, especially for a few
large companies, in which the Belgian government also had substantial shares.
The loss of the Congo caused economic hardship in Belgium.
To strengthen the economy, the Belgian
government instituted an austerity program in the early 1960s. The Socialists
called for a general strike and violence erupted, particularly in the Walloon
south. Although the strike was called off, the crisis had sharpened the
differences between Flemings and Walloons. Socialist leaders proposed that the
unitary state of Belgium be replaced by a loose federation of three
regions—Flanders, Wallonia, and the area around Brussels.
New laws in 1962 and 1963 established
official language frontiers, but the problem was not that easily solved. Both
Flemish and Walloon workers protested discrimination in employment, and
disturbances broke out at the universities of Brussels and Leuven, which
eventually split into separate Dutch-speaking and French-speaking institutions.
Although during the 1960s the Christian Social and Socialist parties remained
the major contenders for power, both Flemish and Walloon federalists continued
to make gains in the general elections, principally at the expense of the
Liberal Party. Eventually separate Flemish and Walloon ministries were created
for education, culture, and economic development. Finally, in 1971, the
constitution was revised to prepare the way for regional autonomy in most
economic and cultural affairs.
Despite this reversal of a long-standing
policy of centralization, the federalist parties opposed the revisions on the
grounds that they did not go far enough. Moreover, repeated efforts to transfer
actual legislative authority to regional bodies were blocked by disagreements
about the geographical extent of the Brussels region. In 1980 agreement was
finally reached on the question of autonomy for Flanders and Wallonia.
During the 1980s the Christian Democrat
parties formed the cabinets, usually under the leadership of Wilfried Martens.
In January 1989 parliament passed a devolution bill designed to transfer power
from the central government to the three ethnolinguistic federal regions.
Implementation of this law moved slowly, and the 1991 elections resulted in a
reduced plurality for the Christian Democrats. Martens resigned as party leader,
and his successor, Jean-Luc Dehaene, formed a new center-left government.
J | European Integration |
Belgium moved to support increased
economic and political cooperation in Europe by ratifying the Treaty on European
Union, or the Maastricht Treaty, in the fall of 1992. In May 1993 Belgium
approved the devolution process and it became a federal state with three
regions—Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels—in July of that year. King Baudouin
died on July 31, 1993, and was succeeded by his brother Albert, who ruled as
Albert II. In parliamentary elections held in May 1995, Dehaene’s coalition was
returned to power. Belgium took another step toward integrating with Europe in
May 1998, when it officially agreed to replace its national currency with a new
single European currency, the euro. The euro was introduced in 1999 and
entirely replaced the Belgian currency, along with the currencies of other
European nations participating in the single currency, in early 2002.
K | Recent Events |
Dehaene’s center-left coalition suffered
a major defeat in parliamentary elections in June 1999, a defeat attributed to
rising public anger over a food contamination scandal. The government had
revealed in May that a wide variety of Belgian foodstuffs might have been
contaminated by the cancer-causing chemical dioxin. Officials reportedly allowed
more than a month to pass before warning the public about health risks. The
contamination led to the banning of many Belgian food exports by the European
Union (EU) and cost the Belgian economy hundreds of millions of dollars.
A center-right coalition led by the
Liberal parties took office in July 1999, and Liberal leader Guy Verhofstadt of
the Flemish Liberal Democrats became prime minister. The formation of the new
government, which also included the left-leaning Socialist parties and the
environmentalist Green parties, marked the first time since 1958 that the
Christian Democrats had been excluded from government. Verhofstadt and his
coalition were returned to power following parliamentary elections in 2003. The
government’s plan to raise the age at which Belgian workers could retire with
full benefits led to strikes in late 2005.
In local elections held in 2000 a
far-right party, Vlaams Blok (Flemish Block), achieved significant gains. The
Vlaams Blok wants independence for the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders and an
end to immigration. In 2004 the Vlaams Blok was declared racist, deprived of
funding, and subsequently disbanded. However, it reorganized under a new name.
Meanwhile, disputes over Belgium’s language boundaries continued in the early
2000s.
In parliamentary elections in June 2007,
Verhofstadt’s party suffered a crushing defeat, coming in fourth place, and
Verhofstadt resigned as prime minister. The Flemish Christian Democrats emerged
as the single largest party and its leader, Yves Leterme, was nominated to form
a coalition government. However, ensuing rounds of coalition talks repeatedly
broke down as the French-speaking politicians of Wallonia rejected Leterme’s
plans to give more autonomy to the regions. The country remained mired in
political deadlock until March 2008, when marathon talks led to the formation of
a five-party coalition government headed by Leterme.
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