I | INTRODUCTION |
Bahrain or
Bahrein, officially Kingdom of Bahrain,
independent Arab nation in western Asia, part of the region known as the Middle
East. Bahrain is made up of 36 islands on the western side of the Persian Gulf,
between Saudi Arabia to the east and Qatar to the west. The main island, also
known as Bahrain, is home to the country’s capital and largest city,
Manama.
Bahrain entered recorded history about 5,000
years ago as a commercial trading center. Long under the influence of more
powerful neighbors, it came under the domination of Iran in the 17th century.
The al-Khalifa family, originating from the central Arabian Peninsula,
established themselves as Bahrain’s rulers in 1783 and has ruled ever since. A
series of treaties in the 19th century gave Britain control over Bahrain’s
defense and foreign affairs. The British influence lasted until Bahrain became
independent in 1971.
More than 60 percent of Bahrain’s population is
native-born, in contrast to the populations of other Persian Gulf states such as
Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, where foreign-born inhabitants
outnumber the native population. Bahrain also differs from its neighbors in that
the number of followers of Shia Islam in the country is more than double that of
the adherents of Sunni Islam, which is the largest group of Muslims worldwide.
The Sunnis control the country’s government, however.
In the 1930s Bahrain became the first Arab
state in the Persian Gulf region to develop an oil-based economy, but by the
early 1980s its oil fields were mostly depleted. However, the country had
prepared for this change by investing in other industries, and its economy
continues to prosper.
II | LAND AND RESOURCES |
In terms of land area, Bahrain is a very small
country. Its total area is 707 sq km (273 sq mi), a little less than that of New
York City. Its main island is by far the largest, with an area of 562 sq km (217
sq mi). It is connected to Saudi Arabia by the King Fahd Causeway.
Bahrain is primarily a flat and arid desert
land. The main island consists of a low desert plain that rises to a low central
ridge where Bahrain’s highest point, Jabal ad Dukhan (134 m/440 ft), is located.
The smaller islands, which include Al Muḩarraq, Umm an Na‘sān, Sitrah, Jiddah,
and the Ḩawār Islands, are generally low-lying, some only a few feet above sea
level. Parts of Manama are being expanded through land reclamation. Bahrain
lacks rivers, lakes, and other permanent bodies of water. The country gets its
water for drinking and irrigation from underground aquifers.
A | Climate |
Bahrain experiences extremely hot and
humid weather from April to October, with temperatures regularly rising to 43°C
(110°F) and sometimes reaching 52°C (125°F). Winters are milder, with
temperatures ranging between 10° and 20°C (50° and 70°F). Annual rainfall
averages about 100 mm (about 4 in) and falls almost entirely during the winter
months. Seasonal winds periodically cause sandstorms and rough seas. The
shimal, a northerly wind, blows in June and July, and the gaws
comes from the south before or after the shimal.
B | Plants and Animals |
Despite harsh desert conditions, Bahrain
supports varied plant and animal life. Many plants are halophytes (plants
that are salt tolerant) and xerophytes (plants that are drought
resistant), including flowering desert shrubs. There are many palm trees,
although increased groundwater salinity has reduced their numbers. (As more and
more freshwater is withdrawn from underground aquifers, saltwater from the
Persian Gulf seeps into the aquifers, making the groundwater more salty.) An
abundance of marine life, including grouper, mackerel, shrimp, pearl oysters,
and dugong (sea cows), thrives in Bahrain’s surrounding waters. Land animals
include scorpions, snakes and other reptiles, hares, hedgehogs, and gazelles.
The government funds a conservation program to breed the endangered white, or
Arabian, oryx (a type of antelope) at Al Areen Wildlife Park.
C | Natural Resources |
Petroleum and natural gas constitute
Bahrain’s principal natural resources. However, the country’s reserves of
petroleum and natural gas are far smaller than those of its neighbors. Only
about 3 percent of the land is suitable for farming. Bahrain’s surrounding
waters contain considerable numbers of fish and shellfish.
D | Environmental Issues |
Like most industrialized nations, Bahrain
copes with a variety of environmental problems. Oil spills and other discharges
from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations have damaged
coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation. No natural freshwater resources
exist in the country, so groundwater and seawater are the only sources for all
water needs. In some areas, industrial pollutants have contaminated water
sources with heavy metals. Agricultural development has been neglected, and the
limited arable land has been degraded. Erosion of farmland has brought
desertification. Bahrain’s Environmental Protection Secretariat has worked to
reverse environmental damage, especially in marine areas. Water Pollution; Air
Pollution.
III | PEOPLE |
Bahrain’s population was estimated at
718,306 in 2008. Bahrain has a population density of 1,080 persons per sq km
(2,798 per sq mi). About 90 percent of the population resides in urban areas,
primarily in Manama, its suburbs, and the nearby city of Al Muḩarraq on the
island of the same name. Manama serves as the country’s governmental and
commercial center, while Al Muḩarraq is the site of Bahrain International
Airport. Many of the smaller islands are uninhabited.
The country has a high population growth
rate, 1.34 percent (2008 estimate). This high growth rate results primarily from
a continued relatively high birth rate. Males account for 56 percent of the
population. The higher number of males than females is found mostly within the
15- to 64-year-old age group. This difference and its concentration in that one
age group reflect the fact that about 60 percent of Bahrain’s workforce is
foreign and male.
Native Bahraini Arabs account for about
two-thirds of the population. The various minorities include Asians (accounting
for 13 percent of the total population), other Arabs (10 percent), and Iranians
(8 percent). Other groups, including western Europeans and Americans, make up
the remaining 6 percent. Some tensions exist between native Bahrainis and
nonnative groups, especially in times of high unemployment. The official
language is Arabic. English, Farsi, and Urdu are also widely spoken.
A | Religion |
Almost all Bahrainis and the majority of
nonnatives are followers of Islam (Muslims). About 70 percent of all native
Bahrainis belong to the Shia branch of Islam, while the remainder, including the
ruling al-Khalifa clan, are adherents of the Sunni branch. Non-Muslims,
including Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, and Jews, account for 15 percent of the
total population. High unemployment among the Shia population has caused
considerable discontent on the part of this group toward the Sunni-dominated
government.
B | Education |
Bahrain established the first public
education system in the Persian Gulf region in 1919. Education is free and,
between the ages of 6 and 15, compulsory. The literacy rate was estimated at 90
percent in 2005, representing a steady increase over the previous several
decades. The rate is somewhat higher among males (92.6 percent) than among
females (86.4 percent). The University of Bahrain was established in 1986 in
Manama. Another institution of higher education, also in Manama, is the College
of Health Sciences, founded in 1976, which trains physicians, nurses, and other
health professionals.
C | Culture |
Traditional Bahraini culture reflects its
Islamic, mercantile, and Arab Bedouin roots. Graceful dhows, Arab boats
used for fishing and diving for pearls, exhibit a high degree of craftsmanship,
as do traditional jewelry and the elegant residences of rulers and merchants.
Traditional performing arts include ceremonial dances accompanied by drums,
readings of the Qur’an (Koran, or Islamic scripture), and storytelling. Bahraini
poets carry on established traditions while also exploring new themes. Soccer,
horse racing, and cricket are among the most popular sports. Celebrations of
birth and marriage continue to be important ceremonial occasions. The Bahrain
National Museum, which opened in 1988 in Manama, features exhibits of crafts,
historical documents, and archaeological artifacts. Arabic Literature; Islamic
Art and Architecture.
In many ways Bahraini society is
relatively open and liberal, reflecting its long history as a trading nation.
Merchants, including the ruling clan, have long been the dominant class,
establishing a business-oriented culture that values accumulation of wealth.
Among university graduates women outnumber men, and women play an increasingly
important role in business and professional life.
At the same time, Bahraini society
continues to be shaped by conservative Islamic values, especially the Shia
population in the rural areas. The family is the principal social unit, and most
women remain in the home. In urban areas many women do not wear the traditional
Islamic veil and some Bahrainis wear Western clothing. Traditional dress
predominates in rural areas. For men, traditional dress includes a loose cotton
garment called a thob, which can be covered with a woolen robe called a
bisht in cool weather. Women traditionally wear a concealing cloak called
an abaya.
In Manama many restaurants serve
Western-style food, but at home most Bahrainis eat traditional fare, including
lamb, fish (especially hamour, a kind of grouper), rice, and dates.
Coffee, a favorite beverage, plays an important social and ceremonial role. The
modern forms of entertainment found in Manama, such as motion pictures, cater
primarily to foreigners.
IV | ECONOMY |
Since the discovery of petroleum on the main
island in 1932, oil production and refining have dominated Bahrain’s economy.
Natural gas occurs along with the crude oil and comes out of the same wells. For
a long time, the gas from the wells was allowed to escape into the air. In 1979
the government set up a company to collect and process the natural gas into
propane, butane, and naphtha. Depletion of Bahrain’s limited oil reserves has
prompted efforts to develop other industries. For example, in the 1970s the
government established Aluminum Bahrain (ALBA); aluminum smelting remains an
important industry. In a further effort at diversification, the government has
promoted tourism.
The government controls the oil and gas
industry, most heavy manufacturing, and the bulk of the transportation and
communications sectors, but it has undertaken efforts to privatize the economy.
Banking, light manufacturing, and commerce are in private hands, with many
multinational corporations maintaining offices in the country.
Bahrain’s gross domestic product (GDP) was
$12.9 billion in 2005, or $17,773.40 per capita. Services, including public
administration, banking, and tourism, accounted for 59 percent of the GDP.
Industry accounted for 40 percent, with manufacturing responsible for 19 percent
and oil and gas extraction for most of the remainder. Agriculture contributed 1
percent of the GDP.
A | Labor |
Of Bahrain’s labor force of 350,301 people
in 2006, 54 percent worked in industry, 43 percent in services, and 1 percent in
agriculture. Almost 60 percent of the labor force was foreign-born, because
native Bahrainis generally lacked the skills required for employment in many
fields and many foreign workers were willing to work for low wages. Unemployment
remains a serious problem. Since the mid-1990s unemployment has contributed to
widespread, sometimes violent, political discontent among Shias, who are
traditionally less advantaged and more prone to unemployment than the
Sunnis.
B | Agriculture |
Like its Gulf Arab neighbors, Bahrain has
aimed for agricultural self-sufficiency, and it now produces about 75 percent of
the fruits and vegetables that its population consumes. The main crops are
dates, tomatoes, onions, and melons. The country also produces a large part of
its milk, poultry, and egg requirements.
C | Manufacturing |
Beginning in the mid-1960s the government
encouraged the growth of small-scale manufacturing. To this end, it offered tax
incentives and low-interest loans to entrepreneurs. Factories in Bahrain produce
plastics, ceramic tiles, paper products, and carbonated beverages.
D | Banking and Currency |
After 1975, when the Lebanese Civil War
began, Bahrain took over much of Lebanon’s financial services industry,
especially in the form of offshore banking units (OBUs). These OBUs are units of
large multinational banking companies that operate in small (usually island)
countries and dependencies where regulation is not as strict as in their home
countries and taxes are not as high. Today Bahrain is home to OBUs from all over
the world. Although declining oil revenues and instability caused by civil
unrest have hurt the banking sector, Bahrain remains a significant financial
center. In 1989 the government established a small stock exchange, which it
linked to Kuwait's stock exchange in 1997.
Bahrain’s currency is the Bahraini
dinar (0.40 dinars equal U.S.$1; 2006), issued by the Bahrain Monetary
Agency. In rural areas many transactions are made by bartering and trade rather
than with money.
E | Foreign Trade |
Bahrain has been a trading center since
ancient times. For thousands of years Bahrainis produced dhows (boats), pearls,
and various fruits and vegetables for trade. Today, oil is the focus of
international commerce in the country. More than one-third of Bahrain’s imports
consists of crude oil from Saudi Arabia, which is processed in Bahrain’s
petroleum refineries. Other imports include machinery and transportation
equipment, food, and chemicals. Exports include petroleum and petroleum
products, aluminum, and manufactured goods. Bahrain’s major trading partners are
Saudi Arabia, India, Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
Bahrain belongs to a wide range of
international and regional economic organizations. Because of its reduced oil
production, Bahrain is not a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC), but it is a member of the Organization of Arab Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OAPEC), which seeks to coordinate Arab oil policy. Bahrain
is a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and has participated
in various council initiatives aimed at promoting economic cooperation among its
members. Following independence in 1971, Bahrain became a member of the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF).
V | GOVERNMENT |
The al-Khalifa family has ruled Bahrain since
1783. Bahrain gained full independence from Britain in 1971, adopted a
constitution in 1973, and substantially revised the constitution in 2002. Under
the 2002 revision, Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy ruled by a king (prior
to 2002, the al-Khalifa ruler was called an emir). The constitution states that
the succession of the office of king automatically passes from ruler to son,
making Bahrain unique among the monarchies of the Persian Gulf in this
regard.
A | Executive and Legislature |
The king appoints a prime minister and a
cabinet called the Council of Ministers. Members of the al-Khalifa family hold
almost all of the top political posts. The constitution also provides for a
bicameral legislature known as the National Assembly. The two houses of the
National Assembly are the Consultative Council, whose 40 members are appointed
by the king, and the Chamber of Deputies, whose 40 members are elected by direct
popular vote. All citizens 18 years of age or older can vote. Both appointed and
elected legislators serve four-year terms. All legislation approved by the
National Assembly must be ratified by the king in order to become law.
B | Political Parties and Local Government |
Political parties are technically
forbidden, although informal political groups emerged in 1973 when the National
Assembly was elected. In 2001 legislation was approved permitting the formation
of political societies, similar to democratic political parties. The principal
Shia political society is al-Wifaq al-Witani (National Accord) Islamic Society.
The two main Sunni political societies are al-Assala al-Islamiyah (Islamic
Purity) Society and the National Islamic Tribune Association, which is the
political arm of the Islah (Reform) Society. The main secular political group is
the leftist National Democratic Action Society.
Bahrain is divided into numerous
municipalities, administered from Manama by a central council whose members are
appointed by the king. Thus, the central government largely controls local
governmental affairs.
C | Judicial System |
Bahrain’s legal system draws upon Islamic
religious law (the Sharia), tribal law, English common law, and other sources.
All residents are subject to the jurisdiction of Bahraini courts, which
guarantee equality to all before the law. The court system consists of civil and
Sharia courts, both of which have courts of appeal. The country’s highest court
is the Supreme Court of Appeal. The 2002 constitution established a Higher
Judicial Council to supervise the functioning of the court system. The king
chairs the council and appoints judges proposed by the council.
D | Defense and International Affairs |
The Bahraini Defense Force (BDF) numbered
11,200 in 2004. The BDF includes some Jordanian officers, as well as Pakistani
and Sudanese enlisted men. Foreign personnel, chiefly Americans and Britons,
contract with the BDF to supply support services. The BDF consists of an
8,500-member army, a 1,500-member air force, and a 1,200-member navy. The navy
receives assistance (in the form of the loan of a frigate and training for
personnel) from the U.S. Navy, whose Fifth Fleet uses Bahrain’s harbor
facilities. There is a separate 1,000-member Coast Guard. Military service is
voluntary. However, native Shias are generally not accepted into the armed
forces because the Sunni ruling establishment does not trust them, believing
that dissidents might find their way into sensitive positions.
Upon its independence in 1971, Bahrain
became a member of the United Nations and the Arab League, which promotes common
Arab interests. It also belongs to the Organization of the Islamic Conference.
Because of its small size, Bahrain does not play a leading role in regional or
international organizations. However, it participates actively in the Gulf
Cooperation Council's defense security measures.
VI | HISTORY |
Archaeological evidence indicates that
Bahrain was inhabited at least 50,000 years ago. The inhabitants may have first
practiced agriculture about 8,000 years ago. By about 4000 bc Bahrain was the center of the
advanced Dilmun trading culture, which had connections with the civilizations of
Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (see Indus Valley Civilization). Dilmun
seems to have been a federation of sorts that centered on the Persian Gulf
shore. It included parts of the Arabian mainland and traded with inland sections
of what is now Saudi Arabia. Thus, early in its history, Bahrain established its
character as a cosmopolitan commercial state, based on its location on major
trade routes that passed through the Persian Gulf region. Dilmun achieved its
greatest wealth and power in about 2000 bc.
In about 600 bc the Babylonian Empire (see
Babylonia) absorbed Bahrain, which until modern times included part of the
adjacent eastern Arabian mainland (now part of Saudi Arabia). Macedonian conqueror Alexander the
Great had been about to add Bahrain (known to the Greeks as Tylos) and the
Arabian Peninsula to his empire when he died suddenly in 323 bc. Eastern Arabia subsequently came
under the influence of the Seleucids, Alexander’s successors in Syria,
Mesopotamia, and Persia. In the 3rd century ad it came under the control of the
Sassanids, a Persian dynasty. In the early 7th century the Byzantine Empire
defeated the Sassanids and drove the Persians from their eastern Arabian
outposts.
By 650 the entire Arabian Peninsula had come
under the rule of the followers of the prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam.
Bahrain became part of the empire of two successive Islamic dynasties, the
Umayyads (661-750) and the Abbasids (750-1258), then entered a long turbulent
period when it often acted as a buffer between larger competing powers. In 1521
the Portuguese, who were in the midst of exploration and conquest in many areas
of Africa and Asia, occupied Bahrain. In 1602 a group of Bahrainis seized the
Portuguese fort and appealed to Iran (known as Persia by the Western world until
the 1930s) for assistance. Their appeal led to Iranian domination, usually
exercised through Arab vassals, for almost two centuries.
In the mid-18th century the al-Khalifa, a
prominent family among the ‘Utub tribe from the central Arabian Peninsula,
established control over parts of Qatar. They seized Bahrain in 1783, ending
Iranian influence in eastern Arabia. By the end of the 18th century the
al-Khalifa had moved their capital to Bahrain.
Meanwhile, Britain and The Netherlands
increased their commercial influence in the region. By the late 18th century the
British had bested the Dutch for supremacy in the Persian Gulf. Beginning in
1820 Britain imposed a series of treaties on Bahrain and its neighbors; treaties
imposed in the 1860s brought Bahrain under still closer British sway.
British influence brought increased order to
the maritime affairs of Bahrain and the other Persian Gulf states and led to the
expansion of the pearling trade, which had been a major economic activity in the
region as early as the 9th century ad.
In the early 20th century pearling was Bahrain’s principal source of
income. Its pearling fleet included about 900 ships, and close to half the male
population was engaged in harvesting and selling pearls. An economic depression
in Europe in the 1920s severely hurt the pearl business, and the introduction of
cultured pearls in the early 1930s effectively ended it.
Petroleum was discovered in Bahrain in the
early 1930s, the first such discovery on the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf.
The discovery assured the country’s continued prosperity. Oil provided the
ruling family with an independent source of income, strengthening its position
against potential challenges from the wealthy merchant class. In addition, it
made possible the creation of modern infrastructure (roads, water supply, and so
forth) and social services. Consequently, Bahrain developed a modern state
administration before the other states under British protection: Kuwait, Qatar,
and the seven Trucial States (later the United Arab Emirates). Bahrain thus
acquired greater commercial and strategic importance. As a result, Britain
exercised its influence there more strongly than in the other protected states,
and Britain’s naval forces in the Persian Gulf established their home port at Al
Jufayr.
In 1968 the British government, acting to cut
expenditures, announced that British forces would withdraw from positions east
of Suez, Egypt, by the end of 1971. Initially, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial
States considered forming a union, but that idea fell through in part because
the other states feared that Bahrain’s greater population and more advanced
development would enable it to dominate such a union. Meanwhile, Bahrain faced
an Iranian claim to its territory, first advanced in 1928. However, Iran
accepted the results of a 1970 United Nations survey that confirmed the
population’s preference for independence.
Bahrain became an independent state on August
15, 1971. Emir Isa bin Sulman al-Khalifa, who had assumed power in 1961,
remained as emir. The Council of State, created in 1970 to advise the emir,
became his cabinet. The emir announced the creation of a constituent assembly to
draft and ratify a constitution. Just over half of its members were elected in
late 1972 by Bahraini male voters, with the balance appointed by the emir. The
constituent assembly approved a constitution, which the emir put into force in
December 1973.
The constitution called for a legislature,
the National Assembly, with very limited political powers. In an election held
that month, male voters elected the assembly. However, the cabinet and the
assembly disagreed on many matters, including trade union and internal security
issues, the U.S. Navy’s lease of Bahrain’s facilities (dating to 1949), and
especially how much power the assembly would have. The emir dissolved the
assembly by decree in August 1975.
Events in the late 20th century demonstrated
how much Bahrain’s stability depended on the stability of the Persian Gulf
region. The Islamic Revolution of Iran, which brought a Shia government to power
on the other shore of the gulf in 1979, heightened tensions between Sunnis and
Shias in Bahrain. In 1981 and 1985 the Bahraini authorities reportedly foiled
Iranian-inspired Shia plots to overthrow the government. The Iran-Iraq War
(1980-1988) brought further instability to the region. Concern over possible
escalation of the war prompted fears about the weakness of Bahrain’s military.
Bahrain joined other Arab nations in the region to found the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) in 1981, thereby receiving assistance with intelligence monitoring
and gaining approval from the other member states to purchase weapons from the
United States.
In 1987 Bahrain provided vital facilities for
U.S. naval forces escorting Kuwaiti vessels through the Persian Gulf to shield
them from possible attack by Iran, which accused them of carrying Iraqi oil. It
also played a key role in supporting naval vessels of the United States and
other countries operating against Iraq during the Persian Gulf War (1991). In
1991 and 1994 Bahrain solidified its security arrangements with the United
States, confirming its role as an American support base in the region.
Political unrest among Bahrain’s Shias
continued over the course of the decade, and the Sunni government’s often harsh
responses drew international criticism. In 1994 Shias calling for the
restoration of the National Assembly, which had been dissolved in 1975, held
protests that led to skirmishes with police. After several months of protests,
the emir began negotiations with the Shia leaders, but the talks dissolved by
mid-1995. In 1996 many Shias were arrested. By 1999 about 40 people had died as
a result of incidents related to Shia unrest.
In 1999 Emir Isa bin Sulman al-Khalifa died
and was immediately succeeded by his son Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa. The new emir
chose a path of reform. He commissioned the drafting of a new national charter
and pardoned hundreds of political prisoners. In February 2001 a public
referendum on the charter passed overwhelmingly, transforming Bahrain into a
constitutional monarchy governed by a king and a new, bicameral legislative
body. The bicameral legislature was known as the National Assembly. The assembly
was divided into the Consultative Council, whose 40 members are appointed by the
king, and the Chamber of Deputies, whose 40 members are elected by direct
popular vote to four-year terms. The reforms enacted in 2001 also gave women the
right to vote and run for political office for the first time in the country’s
history.
The country’s amended constitution
subsequently went into effect in early 2002 and elections for the Chamber of
Deputies, the elected house of the legislature, were held in October. However,
the election was boycotted by the main Shia and secular liberal groups because
in their opinion the reforms did not go far enough.
Shia and liberal, secular political societies
did participate in the 2006 legislative elections, along with Sunni groups. The
main Shia opposition group, al-Wifaq al-Witani (National Accord) Islamic
Society, won 18 of the 40 seats, while Sunni candidates allied with the
government won 22. No secular liberal candidates won, although one woman was
elected, becoming the first woman elected to a parliament in any Arab Persian
Gulf country. Also for the first time a Shia Muslim was named a deputy
premier.
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