American Westward Movement
I | INTRODUCTION |
American Westward
Movement, movement of people from the settled regions of the United
States to lands farther west. Between the early 17th and late 19th centuries,
Anglo-American peoples and their societies expanded from the Atlantic Coast to
the Pacific Coast. This westward movement, across what was often called the
American frontier, was of enormous significance. By expanding the nation’s
borders to include more than three million square miles, the United States
became one of the most powerful nations of the 20th century. However, this
expansion also resulted in great suffering, destruction, and cultural loss for
the Native Americans of North America.
This expansion also meant that much of North
America was dominated by English institutions and ways of life, instead of
Spanish or French ones. The Spanish and French were also exploring and settling
North America in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. For good
or ill, the westward movement of these Anglo-American settlers was one of the
most influential forces to shape North American history.
II | EARLY SETTLEMENT AND GROWTH |
A | Contest of Empires |
Before Anglo-American westward expansion,
North America had been shaped by many other forces and cultures. There were
hundreds of Native American tribes who had been living on the continent for
thousands of years before any Europeans arrived. Many of these tribes
disappeared because of the assault of European exploration and settlement.
The Spanish, who explored the Southwest and
Southeast beginning in the 1540s, founded the earliest European settlements.
They planted their first colonies at Saint Augustine in Florida in 1565 and in
the upper Río Grande Valley of New Mexico between 1598 and 1610. By the time of
the American Revolution (1775-1783), the Spanish had established settlements
from the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts, through Texas and the Southwest, and up
the Pacific coast as far north as San Francisco, which was founded in 1776.
The French also explored North America—first
settling in Nova Scotia, Canada, at Port Royal in 1604, and then moving along
the St. Lawrence River valley where they founded Québec in 1608. With the help
of an inviting system of rivers and lakes, the French expanded rapidly into the
interior. In little more than a century, they had established outposts along the
St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, including Montréal, Fort Frontenac,
Detroit, and Fort Mackinac. The French also built posts along the Mississippi
River at Kaskaskia, Natchez, and New Orleans, and along the Gulf coast at Mobile
and Biloxi. Deeply involved in the fur trade, the French also reached as far
west as the Great Plains and central Canada to bring manufactured goods to
Native Americans in exchange for the skins of deer, fox, and especially
beavers.
Other nations were drawn to the continent as
well. Russians came in search of furs, first along the Alaskan coast and
eventually as far south as California, where they operated a post less than 100
miles north of San Francisco. The Dutch established the Atlantic colony of New
Netherlands, later renamed New York by the English. Swedes and Finns lived in
small settlements in what would become Pennsylvania. By the mid-19th century,
large numbers of Chinese emigrated to western North America. North America has
always held a dazzling diversity of peoples and cultures, and the United States
today continues to be shaped by their traditions and influences.
B | British Settlement |
England established its first Atlantic
colonies in Virginia at Jamestown in 1607 and in Massachusetts at Plymouth,
Boston, and other towns between 1620 and 1630. These first English frontiers
illustrate two of the most common motivations for people moving westward. The
first motivation was the hope of finding great wealth quickly through developing
and trading the colonies’ resources. Jamestown was settled for this reason. The
earliest dreams of mining for gold and producing wine and silk came to nothing,
but in time Virginians found prosperity in the rich soil, especially by raising
and exporting tobacco. Over the next 400 years, the economic motive, in
particular the desire for good, cheap farmland, would be the most powerful
attraction for people moving west.
The second common motivation was the hope of
practicing their religion without government intervention. The Puritan settlers
of Massachusetts wanted to build a community based on religious ideas that were
opposed by the British government. The frontier was home to dozens of colonies
looking for freedom, religious and otherwise. One of these colonies in
present-day Utah grew to become the home of one of the world’s largest and most
rapidly growing religions, the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints,
whose members are known as Mormons.
Those first Atlantic colonies also
illustrated the contradictory roles that government played in westward
expansion. The Puritans settled in Massachusetts with the permission, and
sometimes the protection, of the same government whose policies they were trying
to escape. Governments, first England and then the United States, always
encouraged movement westward in a variety of ways. These governments bought or
seized land from others and gave it away or sold it cheaply to emigrants. The
governments used their military to protect settlers and financed developments,
such as transportation, that made settlement easier.
People heading west came to expect the
government’s aid and support. At the same time, settlers often resisted efforts
by distant authorities to regulate how they used and lived on their new lands.
From the first colonies to the final farming and ranching frontiers of the 20th
century, this conflicting relationship between pioneers and government was a
large part of the frontier story.
C | Across the Appalachians |
The first Anglo-American frontier—made up
of the original 13 colonies—spread westward slowly. The colonists wanted to
remain closely connected to their mother country across the Atlantic, and they
were hemmed in to the west by the rugged Appalachian region, a series of thickly
timbered ridges, valleys, and plateaus with few openings for migration. By 1750,
however, parts of this first frontier were expanding rapidly. A variety of
economic motives drew them westward. Fur traders in New England, New York, and
Pennsylvania bartered with Native Americans in the Ohio River valley and the
Great Lakes for beaver pelts, which were in high demand in Europe for the making
of beaver hats. Southerners reached to the Mississippi River and beyond to trade
with Native Americans for deerskins.
Some hunters and traders soon considered
settling beyond the Appalachians to establish farms in country with rich soil
and forests full of game. The most famous of these, Daniel Boone, worked closely
with another familiar frontier figure—the land speculator. Land speculators
wanted to make profits from buying land, selling it to settlers, and organizing
settlements. Boone worked for Richard Henderson, a land speculator who dreamed
of selling land in Kentucky, Tennessee, and western Pennsylvania.
The English government, however, had mixed
feelings about the westward movement. After Great Britain defeated France in the
French and Indian War (1754-1763), it gained title to eastern Canada, Florida,
the Gulf coast, and all land between the Appalachian Mountains and the
Mississippi River. These new lands opened the way for British expansion.
However, Native Americans of the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley lashed out against
the English in an attempt to preserve their independence, their land, and their
way of life. With the Ottawa chief Pontiac as their most visible leader, the
tribes waged a bloody and costly war. As a result, the British government
decided to keep the white settlers apart from the Native Americans. It issued
the Royal Proclamation of 1763, banning all white settlement beyond the
Appalachians and stating that only licensed government agents could trade with
the Native Americans. Predictably, many colonists were furious. The proclamation
proved to be one of the first of many conflicts between Britain and the
colonists that eventually led to the American Revolution.
Regulations, such as the proclamation, were
nearly impossible to enforce because of the distance between the British
government and the colonies. In the early 1770s land speculator Richard
Henderson, in violation of British law, negotiated with the Cherokees for
permission to settle in Kentucky. He then hired Daniel Boone to lead a community
of families out of North Carolina, through the Cumberland Gap, and up the
Wilderness Road, an old Native American path that Boone had explored earlier.
They founded the town of Boonesboro in the central Kentucky basin.
Other people sponsored similar efforts
immediately west of the Appalachians, establishing settlements in Tennessee and
at the headwaters of the Ohio River in western Pennsylvania, where the village
of Pittsburgh grew up around the outpost of Fort Pitt. At the opening of the
American Revolution, the Anglo-American frontier had breached this first
mountain barrier, despite the British government’s efforts to stop it. Within
one long lifetime, it would sweep westward to the Pacific Ocean.
III | THE FRONTIER TO THE MISSISSSIPPI |
A | The Old Northwest |
After the United States defeated Britain
in the American Revolution, the government of the new nation encouraged
expansion even more than the British had. This encouragement can be seen in two
of its earliest laws, the Ordinances of 1785 and 1787. The Ordinance of 1785
provided for the survey and sale of land in what became known as the Old
Northwest—the region north of the Ohio River, west of the Appalachians, east of
the Mississippi River, and south of Canada. This area encompassed the
present-day states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of
Minnesota.
The Ordinance of 1787, called the
Northwest Ordinance, forbade slavery in the Old Northwest, guaranteed English
common law there, and set up a system of government that outlined how the
territories could become states. The new United States government also paid
revolutionary war veterans by giving them the right to take land for free in the
Old Northwest. Some took up the offer. Many more sold their right to land
speculators, who in turn did all they could to encourage westward
migration.
At the same time, the U.S. government
assured Native Americans living in the Old Northwest and in the land south of
the Ohio River, called the Old Southwest, that their rights and interests would
be protected. The two policies—encouraging expansion while protecting Native
Americans—proved hopelessly contradictory. Several Native American tribes,
including the Shawnee, Delaware, and Miami, united in a confederation to protect
their lands against white settlement. They scored some stunning military
victories against the United States. However, the confederation was defeated by
General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The Treaty of
Greenville, signed in 1795, ceded much of the present-day state of Ohio to the
United States. Other treaties opened a majority of the Ohio Valley to white
settlement by 1809, and pioneers flooded into it.
The Old Northwest contained rich farmland,
thick forests, and game for food and trade. Hundreds, and then thousands of
flatboats floated down the broad Ohio River every year, bringing settlers and
goods to southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Most who settled this region came
westward from Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and the New England states,
although a large number, like the family of Abraham Lincoln, moved northward out
of Kentucky. Most were Anglo-Americans and German Americans. They carried their
cultures with them—languages, values, customs, traditions, and ways of making a
living—which they adapted to the demands of their new environment. Towns
appeared with marketplaces, seats of government, and manufacturing centers for
iron, glass, leather goods, barrels, and other items too expensive to import.
The huge majority of the population, however, lived in the countryside. Most
were independent landowners who worked modest-sized farms.
Native Americans had long farmed this
region, but white pioneers brought a new kind of agriculture. While Native
Americans had cultivated several crops on a single plot of land, the new
immigrants dedicated one piece of land to a single crop, usually corn and later
wheat and other grains. Pioneers also tried to produce as much as possible,
since eventually they hoped both to provide for themselves and to sell their
crops in faraway eastern markets. This approach to crop cultivation exhausted
the soil much more quickly than Native American farming, and it created a demand
for more and more land where settlers could grow crops. The pioneers’ use and
abuse of their environment pushed the frontier westward.
B | The Old Southwest |
Most white pioneers moving into the Old
Southwest came from Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. The rich
soil and long growing seasons offered agricultural opportunity, so the vast
majority of settlers were farmers. In the Old Southwest, immigrants brought two
institutions from the South, which were not found in the North: the plantation
system of large landholdings owned by one family, and black slavery. Most
immigrants were independent farmers without slaves, just as in the Old
Northwest, but the planter elite often dominated political and social life. The
two distinctive characteristics of the Old Southwest eventually led to the
sectional crisis that culminated in the American Civil War (1861-1865).
Southern pioneer farmers, like those to
the north, began by producing mostly for themselves, but they also hoped
eventually to export their products to outside markets. At first their main
export was tobacco. Then in 1793 the New Englander Eli Whitney visited Georgia
and devised a machine that revolutionized Southern agriculture. The cotton gin
removed easily and quickly the seeds embedded in the fibers of short-staple
cotton—a process that had previously been done very slowly by hand. The cotton
gin would allow Southerners to expand cotton production at a time when textile
mills in England and the American Northeast were in need of huge amounts of
cotton. The Southern frontier would soon become the largest cotton-producing
region in the world. Especially after the War of 1812, when peaceful commerce
was reopened with Britain, the lure of new land for cotton drew settlers rapidly
toward the Mississippi River and beyond. As in the Old Northwest, cotton and
especially tobacco farming rapidly exhausted the soil, damaging the environment
and encouraging further movement westward in search of new land.
C | Clash and Mingling of Cultures |
The rapid expansion in both the Old
Northwest and the Old Southwest strained the interaction between Native
Americans and whites, and by 1809 they were moving toward confrontation. The
most significant resistance to white settlement came from a remarkable Shawnee
warrior and diplomat, Tecumseh, and his brother Tensketawah, also called The
Prophet. The brothers called for all Native American peoples to join together
and refuse to cede any more land to whites. They also urged Native Americans to
reject Euro-American trade and culture and to embrace a new religion based on a
vision of Tensketawah. Although Tecumseh enlisted the support of some groups, a
clash between white militia and his followers at their village, Prophetstown, in
1811 precipitated a confrontation before Native American unity could be
achieved.
The War of 1812 ended significant Native
American military resistance to white settlement in both the Old Northwest and
the Old Southwest. Tecumseh, who had formed an alliance with Britain against the
United States, was killed in 1813 when the British were defeated at the Battle
of the Thames. Meanwhile, in 1814 the militia leader Andrew Jackson destroyed a
large force of Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama. However, the
final removal of Native American peoples from these areas was yet to come. In
the 1830s the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles would be
taken, most of them by force, into Indian Territory, which was west of the
Mississippi River in present-day Oklahoma.
By then the occupation of the region from
the Appalachians to the Mississippi was virtually complete. Beginning with the
13 colonies—New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey,
New York, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina,
and Georgia—the country continued to grow. From 1790 to 1803 Vermont, Kentucky,
Tennessee, and Ohio became states. Louisiana was admitted in 1812. Between 1816
and 1819 one state a year was admitted to the union—Indiana, Mississippi,
Illinois, and Alabama—and in 1820 Missouri petitioned for statehood. Florida was
acquired from Spain in 1821, and Michigan and Wisconsin were organized into
territories.
The frontier story was not, however,
entirely one of conflict. The different peoples of the frontier sometimes
mingled peacefully and changed one another. Native Americans adapted horses,
firearms, iron pots, blankets, fishhooks, hatchets, and many other European
goods to their own purposes. Some wore woolen shirts, drank tea with sugar, and
lived in log cabins introduced by Swedes and Finns. Similarly, white pioneers
began growing corn, squash, beans, and pumpkins, crops that were introduced to
them by Native Americans. They also began using many of the Native American folk
medicines. From their hairstyles to their moccasins, the first settlers often
resembled Native Americans more than they resembled whites living in the east.
The English language also expanded as
frontier peoples exchanged vocabularies. Pecan, muskrat, opossum, hickory, and
many other words came from Native American languages; prairie and cookie from
the Dutch; and cockroach and alligator from the Spanish. Old words took on new
meanings. In England corn meant any grain, but on the frontier it came to mean
maize, or Native American corn. The many uses of maize were reflected in the
more than 150 word combinations that were developed using the word corn. Because
the skin of an adult male deer was often traded on the southern frontier for the
main Spanish coin in that area, a buck and a dollar came to mean the same
thing.
The people were as mixed as the languages
they spoke. From the Atlantic coastal islands to the Mississippi and beyond,
many cultures met and produced generations that blended different races and
ethnic groups—English, Dutch, German, French, Spanish, African Americans, and
scores of Native American tribes. The resulting ethnic stew was one of the most
enduring legacies of westward expansion.
IV | BEYOND THE MISSISSIPPI |
As the frontier expanded beyond the
Mississippi, it was moved by many of the same patterns and themes that had been
important east of the river. Once again pioneers were drawn westward by economic
opportunity and the chance to escape or purify an earlier way of life. Again the
United States found itself in bloody conflict with rivals, such as Mexico and
Native American tribes. The mix of people and exchange of cultures continued,
now with an even richer mix of influences. The U.S. government played an even
greater role in shaping the course of expansion west of the Mississippi.
Forces other than the search for farmland
also propelled the frontier westward. The Far West was a vast storehouse of
resources—gold, silver, coal, iron, copper, timber, rich soil, and immense
grazing lands. The rise of industry created an almost limitless market for many
of the West’s riches. That, and an expanding overseas market, gave immigrants
additional reasons to move west. Rapid advances in transportation such as the
building of the railroads made it easier for immigrants to move west.
However, the frontier did not uniformly
expand westward from the Mississippi River. By the 1840s, the line of settlement
had moved only a few hundred miles past the river. By 1850 Arkansas, Michigan,
Texas, Iowa, and Wisconsin had been admitted as states. Then the frontier jumped
across the middle of the country to Oregon and California on the Pacific Coast.
California became the first state on the Pacific in 1850.
The frontier then began moving both westward
and eastward, as white settlers gradually pushed into the huge interior area of
the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, and the far Southwest.
Oregon, Minnesota, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado were admitted to the
Union between 1850 and 1876, but parts of the Rocky Mountains and the Great
Plains were settled slowly. Then in 1889 and 1890, six states were added: North
Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming. This left only
Utah, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona in the contiguous United States, all of
which had joined the Union by 1912.
The order in which states were admitted to
the Union reflects the frontier’s movement across the American West. The many
resources of the West were taken and developed at different times and for
different purposes by pioneers from the East. Land in the Far West was developed
for farming; gold and silver were mined from the mountains; and water was
diverted to help make the Great Plains more hospitable for agriculture. Instead
of a steady advance of new settlement, the frontier moved as a series of
explosive changes.
A | Explorations |
The United States began exploration of the
Far West much later than some other nations. In 1540 the Spanish conquistador
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led an ambitious expedition in search of gold into
New Mexico and the southern plains. Later, during the 1770s, Juan Bautista de
Anza and Francisco de Escalante explored the southern Rocky Mountains and much
of the Southwest, while Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailed along the Pacific coast
as far as northern California. French explorers and traders explored the
Missouri River valley and the northern plains in the 18th century. The
Englishman Alexander Mackenzie, who traveled through western Canada to the
Pacific in the 1790s, was the first Euro-American known to have crossed the
northern part of the continent by land, while the English navigator George
Vancouver explored and mapped the north Pacific coast.
Geographic knowledge had economic and
strategic value, and for this reason nations did not share this information. The
United States knew little of the Far West at the time of the Louisiana Purchase
when the United States acquired what was roughly the western watershed of the
Mississippi River from France in 1803. President Thomas Jefferson, who already
had a deep curiosity about the West, selected Meriwether Lewis and William Clark
to explore the northern reaches of the new acquisition and then to proceed to
the Pacific Ocean. With the help of a Shoshone woman guide, Sacagawea, Lewis and
Clark ascended the Missouri River from Saint Louis, crossed the Rocky Mountains
and descended the Columbia River. After a winter on the Pacific, they retraced
their route and returned. Besides being one of the great adventures of American
history, the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) gathered a vast amount of
geographic and scientific information, established diplomatic and trade
relations with some Native American tribes, and helped establish the claim of
the United States to the far Northwest.
Lewis and Clark led only one of several
government-sponsored expeditions. Zebulon M. Pike (1805-1806) and Stephen H.
Long (1820) explored the central Great Plains and the Front Range of the Rocky
Mountains. While John C. Frémont covered little new ground during the 1840s, his
published accounts (mostly written by his wife Jesse) taught the public about
the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, and California. Maritime
expeditions under Robert Gray mapped more of the Pacific coast. In 1792 Gray
explored the mouth of the Columbia River, which strengthened the claim of the
United States to the Northwest.
Besides these government agents, thousands
of trappers, the mountain men, traveled through the Far West after 1820 in
search of furs, especially beaver pelts. During the 1820s and 1830s these men’s
travels did at least as much as government expeditions to fill in what were, to
the United States, blank spaces on the Western map. One leading trapper,
Jedediah Smith, covered more than 16,000 miles in his explorations and provided
the government with information and maps of the region.
B | Overland to Oregon |
This geographic knowledge opened the way
for ordinary citizens to move across the country to the Far West. The area
immediately west of the farming frontier, the Great Plains, offered little to
farmers who were used to working on land with plentiful rainfall and having
trees to build houses. Settlers traveled across the Great Plains to get to the
Pacific Northwest, then called the Oregon country, which by the 1840s had a
reputation as an agrarian paradise, where soil and climate would nearly
guarantee a settler’s health and prosperity. The central valleys of California
were pictured in the same way. Oregon and California, however, were more than
2000 miles from Missouri, on the other side of plains, deserts, and the nation’s
two tallest mountain chains.
Nonetheless, beginning in the 1840s some
people were willing to make the trek to their imagined promised land. Between
1841 and the late 1860s, more than a third of a million persons moved from the
Missouri valley to the Pacific Coast. Most followed overland trails, including
the Oregon and California trails. These two routes left Missouri and followed
the Platte River through southwestern Wyoming, and then split. The Oregon Trail
went northwest over the Blue and Cascade mountains to Oregon, and the California
Trail went southwest over the Sierra Nevada to California. At first, most of
those who traveled these trails were farming families who settled in what is now
central California and along Oregon’s Willamette valley. The former was part of
Mexico, and the latter was claimed by both the United States and Britain. This
migration extended the influence of the United States, which was soon to wrestle
with Mexico and Britain for control of the land all the way to the Pacific.
C | Addition of Territory |
Between 1845 and 1848 the United States
rapidly pushed the national border to the Pacific Ocean, increasing its
territory by more than 1.2 million square miles, more land than was added by the
Louisiana Purchase. It acquired these lands in three great chunks, through
annexation, diplomacy, and a war. This acquisition of land was probably the most
important step taken by the U.S. government in encouraging westward
expansion.
In 1845 the United States annexed Texas,
which had been an independent republic since winning its independence from
Mexico in 1836 (see Texas Revolution). The next year President James K.
Polk negotiated a treaty with Britain that gave the United States land that
would become the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Also in 1846 the
nation went to war with Mexico. After almost two years of fighting, Mexico
surrendered nearly half of its territory. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
Mexico relinquished its claims to Texas, and the United States acquired land
that would become the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of
Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
D | The Mining Frontier |
In January 1848 only a month before the
signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, some employees of John Sutter, an
early promoter of California settlement, found traces of gold in the American
River, where they were building a mill. Their discovery sparked the gold rush of
1849. Thousands of people flooded along the overland trails, and at least as
many came by ship, some from Australia and Asia and others from the eastern
United States and Europe. Over the next few years, hundreds of thousands of
people crossed the continent for the gold fields. Few found the wealth they
expected, and most returned home. Enough stayed, however, to establish
California as a state just two years after the gold rush began. The rush
overwhelmed the Hispanic and Native American peoples already living in
California. White settlers took land claims from many Hispanics and killed many
Native Americans.
More than $1 billion in gold was mined in
California. There and elsewhere in the West two types of mining were practiced.
In placer mining, individual prospectors took gold from streams that had eroded
the gold from its first home somewhere further upstream. Lode mining took gold
from its original source, usually in veins, or areas of mineral deposits, that
ran through some Western mountains. To find this gold, prospectors had to dig
and blast their way into the rock. Locating and extracting gold through this
method was extremely expensive, and working deep in the earth was very
dangerous. However, the rewards were usually much greater than those from placer
mining. Most lode mining was done by large companies, and mines became an
industrial enterprise with wage workers and corporate owners.
Once gold was found in California,
prospectors scoured the West in search of other bonanzas. Although none proved
as rewarding as California’s, many deposits of minerals were discovered. There
were gold rushes in Colorado in 1859, Idaho and Montana in the 1860s, and
Arizona and Nevada in the 1870s. In 1859 silver was discovered in far western
Nevada in what became known as the Comstock Lode. Eventually this region
produced more than $300 million in silver. Other silver strikes were made in
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and Arizona. The West proved to be one of the world’s
great reservoirs of valuable metals.
E | Railroads |
With such an explosive growth in
population on the Pacific Coast, there was a need to connect these distant
communities with the eastern states. The answer seemed to be a railroad linking
the two parts of the continent. Building a transcontinental system, however, was
enormously complex and expensive. In 1862 Congress agreed to loan hundreds of
millions of dollars to two corporations to construct the railroad. These
companies were also given millions of acres of Western land to sell in order to
pay back the loan. In effect, Western land was being used to pay for the West’s
own expansion. With the help of thousands of Irish immigrant laborers, the Union
Pacific Railroad was built westward from Omaha, Nebraska. At the same time, the
Central Pacific was built eastward from northern California, edging over the
Sierra Nevada through the efforts of Chinese workers imported for the job. In
1869 the two railroads joined at Promontory Summit, Utah.
Over the next 20 years, other
transcontinental railroads were built: the Northern Pacific, Great Northern,
Southern Pacific, Atlantic and Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe.
Most were also financed by massive gifts of public land to private corporations.
Many other lines appeared, connecting the larger railroads and reaching into
remote areas. By the 1890s a web of steel rails covered much of the West.
The growth of railroads encouraged
westward expansion more than any other single development. Railroads made it
easier for settlers to move west, and railroad corporations vigorously promoted
settlement in order to sell the land given them by the government. Railroads
also helped industry develop in the West. Many new industries—mining and
lumbering, for instance—relied on railroads to carry in equipment and materials
that could never have been brought in otherwise. Western companies used the
railroads to export the rich resources they found there. The railroads also made
it easier to transport troops and war materials, and thereby accelerated the end
of Native American independence.
F | Ranching and Farming Frontiers |
Railroads were also responsible for the
growth of ranching. After the American Civil War, the Northeast and Ohio Valley
had a growing demand for beef. At the same time, southern Texas had a huge
supply of cattle, mostly descendants of Spanish stock called longhorns. The
railroad provided the means of linking supply with demand—the Texas cattle with
the Northern cities. Cattle were herded northward out of Texas along the
Chisholm and Great Western trails to towns on the Great Plains. There they were
loaded onto specially built rail cars and carried by the newly built railroads
to slaughterhouses in Kansas City, Chicago, and other urban centers. Cowtowns
like Abilene, Caldwell, and Dodge City in Kansas and Oglalla in Nebraska became
famous as playgrounds for cowboys at the end of long, difficult cattle
drives.
By the late 1880s cattle drives were no
longer necessary. New railroads connected more of the West to eastern markets.
In addition, as Native American tribes were defeated and confined to
reservations, cattle ranching spread into the Great Plains states of Kansas,
Colorado, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, and Montana. Ranching also boomed in
the Southwestern states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada. New breeds of cattle
that could withstand the harsh conditions could now be fattened on plains
grasses and shipped to eastern dinner tables.
Ranching became a big business. The
largest ranches often were corporations funded by millions of dollars in stock
sold in the East, Britain, and Europe. As in many expanding industries, however,
problems soon developed. Rapid growth led to overstocking and overgrazing of
pastures, and providing the cattle with water was difficult because of the arid
climate. The grasslands could not support all the cattle, which became weakened
from hunger and were unable to survive the severe winters. The brutal winter of
1886 to 1887 killed tens of thousands of cattle on plains ranches. In the
aftermath many ranchers switched to sheep, which could survive with less water
than cattle.
One of the original forces behind westward
expansion—farmers looking for better land—was also important in the development
of the plains states. Once again the railroads played a crucial role. Even the
richest lands were useless without a way to transport harvested crops to
markets. As more of the interior was reached by rail lines, farmers began moving
in, often buying the land that the railroad corporations had received from the
government.
The government encouraged agricultural
expansion more directly with the Homestead Act, passed in 1862. The act offered
65 hectares (160 acres) virtually free to any citizen willing to develop the
land. Lawmakers hoped that the Homestead Act would lead to agricultural
development in the western states, but this goal was not achieved. Because of
the lack of rainfall in much of the West, a successful farmer often needed more
land than the Homestead Act offered. Furthermore, much of the best land had
already been sold or given to railroads. Nonetheless, tens of thousands of
farming families moved west under the law.
These farming families settled on millions
of acres that had been shunned by farmers who had crossed over the region
earlier to settle in more inviting places on the Pacific Coast. These families
farmed the plains with new techniques and equipment developed after the Civil
War. The government, in an effort to contribute to the development of these new
methods, conducted research in the newly created Department of Agriculture and
endowed agricultural colleges under the Morrill Act (1862). To produce crops
with less rainfall, farmers on the Great Plains used new methods of dry farming
and irrigated land close to streams. They learned to build sod houses cheaply
out of bricks made of soil and held together by grassroots, but they also relied
on many products from distant factories, such as barbed wire, which made cheap
fencing in treeless areas. As in mining and ranching, corporations began buying
land for large farms. The modern America of industry and big business was
reaching into the farming frontier.
G | Native Americans |
Dozens of Native American tribes lived in
the West, supporting themselves with many different economies. Tribes on the
Great Plains, like the Arapaho and Sioux, were hunters and gatherers who
depended on vast herds of bison. Most tribes in the Southwest, like the Pueblos,
Hopis, and Navajos, were hunters and farmers. In the Pacific Northwest, tribes
like the Nez Perce were traders and fishermen who relied on rivers rich with
salmon. Westward expansion depleted resources and damaged the environment, thus
destroying the Native Americans’ ability to support themselves. In addition, the
pioneers carried diseases that killed thousands of Native Americans.
Some Native Americans resisted the influx
of white settlers militarily. The most famous conflicts took place on the Great
Plains, where the Sioux, Cheyennes, Comanches, Kiowas, and others fought the
U.S. Army in several campaigns between 1855 and 1877. Native Americans won some
dramatic victories, including the defeat of George Custer on Montana’s Little
Bighorn River in 1876, but they were ultimately defeated and confined to
reservations. In 1877 the Nez Perce fought a running campaign in an unsuccessful
attempt to escape to Canada. Southwestern Apache peoples, with their most famous
leader, Geronimo, resisted occupation of their country until 1886. Overall,
however, military conflict was not the force that destroyed the Native American
culture of independence; it was the volume of white settlers taking over Native
American land and the ways in which these settlers transformed the West.
Under scores of treaties Native Americans
were assigned to reservations and given government support that was rarely
adequate. Government policy tried to assimilate the tribes into white society by
suppressing native culture and trying to convert Native Americans to white
customs. The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to end reservations and diminish the
importance of the tribe by allotting reservation lands to individual tribal
members. Between 1887 and 1934, dozens of reservations were eliminated, and
Native American lands were reduced from 150 million acres to 48 million acres.
In 1934 the Wheeler-Howard Act preserved the remaining reservations and revived
others. Although living conditions remain poor on many reservations, Native
Americans have managed in many cases to preserve much of their culture and
identity.
V | THE WEST IN POPULAR CULTURE |
The westward movement has played a premier
role in popular culture. Westerns, stories about life on the frontier, have been
popular in the United States and throughout the world. The exploits and
adversities of those who moved west, from mountain men and cowboys to women
homesteaders and cavalrymen, have been the subject of countless novels, poems,
paintings, films, and television programs. Frontier figures such as Daniel
Boone, Buffalo Bill Cody, and Kit Carson, as well as Native Americans such as
Tecumseh, Sitting Bull, and Geronimo, have become heroes in literature and art.
Modern political leaders, from Theodore Roosevelt to John F. Kennedy, have
evoked frontier images in reference to themselves and their ideas. Both as myth
and reality, the westward movement continues to be a part of national life.
VI | CONCLUSION |
The legacy of westward expansion is a mix of
great accomplishments and grim tragedies, terrible errors and heroic
persistence. It brought together under a single government and economy the land
that makes up the United States today. The movement westward thereby contributed
to the emergence of one of the wealthiest and most powerful nations of the 20th
century. This was achieved, however, by conquering and dispossessing other
people. Although the frontier witnessed a vigorous exchange among many cultures,
the government often tried to suppress the ways of life of Native Americans and
other ethnic groups, such as Hispanics and Asians, outside the national
mainstream. The West has produced great wealth and has supplied enormous
resources to others in the nation and the world. This production, however, has
often resulted in enormous environmental damage. Mountainsides around mining
towns have been stripped of trees, pastures overgrazed by cattle, and the
topsoil of farmlands destroyed.
Many of the trends set in motion by westward
expansion continue. Today the West is the most rapidly growing part of the
United States. It is also one of the most ethnically diverse, as people from
other cultures continue to be drawn to the West. Hispanic peoples have come from
the south and many different Asian groups from the east. Residents of both the
city and the countryside still wrestle with the land’s limitations, especially
the lack of water, and government support remains extremely important. Millions
consider the West the land of opportunity, even as Westerners try to cope with
environmental problems produced by past and present efforts to develop resources
as rapidly as possible.
No comments:
Post a Comment