I | INTRODUCTION |
American Civil
War, a military conflict between the United States of America (the Union)
and the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy) from 1861 to 1865.
The American Civil War is sometimes called the
War Between the States, the War of Rebellion, or the War for Southern
Independence. It began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate General P. G. T.
Beauregard opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, and
lasted until May 26, 1865, when the last Confederate army surrendered. The war
took more than 600,000 lives, destroyed property valued at $5 billion, brought
freedom to 4 million black slaves, and opened wounds that have not yet
completely healed more than 125 years later.
II | CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR |
The chief and immediate cause of the war was
slavery. Southern states, including the 11 states that formed the Confederacy,
depended on slavery to support their economy. Southerners used slave labor to
produce crops, especially cotton. Although slavery was illegal in the Northern
states, only a small proportion of Northerners actively opposed it. The main
debate between the North and the South on the eve of the war was whether slavery
should be permitted in the Western territories recently acquired during the
Mexican War (1846-1848), including New Mexico, part of California, and Utah.
Opponents of slavery were concerned about its expansion, in part because they
did not want to compete against slave labor.
A | Economic and Social Factors |
By 1860, the North and the South had
developed into two very different regions. Divergent social, economic, and
political points of view, dating from colonial times, gradually drove the two
sections farther and farther apart. Each tried to impose its point of view on
the country as a whole. Although compromises had kept the Union together for
many years, in 1860 the situation was explosive. The election of Abraham Lincoln
as president was viewed by the South as a threat to slavery and ignited the
war.
During the first half of the 19th century,
economic differences between the regions also increased. By 1860 cotton was the
chief crop of the South, and it represented 57 percent of all U.S. exports. The
profitability of cotton, known as King Cotton, completed the South’s dependence
on the plantation system and its essential component, slavery.
The North was by then firmly established
as an industrial society. Labor was needed, but not slave labor. Immigration was
encouraged. Immigrants from Europe worked in factories, built the railroads of
the North, and settled the West. Very few settled in the South.
The South, resisting industrialization,
manufactured little. Almost all manufactured goods had to be imported.
Southerners therefore opposed high tariffs, or taxes that were placed on
imported goods and increased the price of manufactured articles. The
manufacturing economy of the North, on the other hand, demanded high tariffs to
protect its own products from cheap foreign competition.
Before the Civil War, the federal
government’s chief source of revenue was the tariff. There were few other
sources of revenue. For example, neither personal nor corporate income taxes
existed. The tariff paid for most improvements made by the federal government,
such as roads, turnpikes, and canals. To keep tariffs low, the South preferred
to do without these improvements.
The expanding Northwest Territory, which
was made up of the present-day states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan,
Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota, was far from the markets for its grain and
cattle. It needed such internal improvements for survival, and so supported the
Northeast’s demands for high tariffs. In return, the Northeast supported most
federally financed improvements in the Northwest Territory.
As a result, although both the South and
the West were agricultural, the West allied itself with the Northern, rather
than the Southern, point of view. Economic needs sharpened sectional
differences, adding to the interregional hostility.
B | Political Factors |
In the early days of the United States,
loyalty to one’s state often took precedence over loyalty to one’s country. A
New Yorker or a Virginian would refer to his state as “my country.” The Union
was considered a “voluntary compact” entered into by independent, sovereign
states for as long as it served their purpose to be so joined. In the nation’s
early years, neither North nor South had any strong sense of the permanence of
the Union. New England, for example, once thought of seceding, or leaving
the Union, because the War of 1812 cut off trade with England.
As Northern and Southern patterns of
living diverged, their political ideas also developed marked differences. The
North needed a central government to build an infrastructure of roads and
railways, protect its complex trading and financial interests, and control the
national currency. The South depended much less on the federal government than
did other regions, and Southerners therefore felt no need to strengthen it. In
addition, Southern patriots feared that a strong central government might
interfere with slavery.
III | THE FIGHT OVER SLAVERY |
Up to 1860 only a few extremists in the
South, called fire-eaters, wanted to apply the doctrine of secession to create a
separate Southern country. Moderates of both North and South kept hoping to
compromise their differences over slavery, tariffs, and the territories in the
forum of the Congress of the United States. Compromise was possible as long as
neither side controlled the Senate.
With the admission of Alabama in 1819, the
Senate became perfectly balanced. However, vast territories in the West and
Southwest, acquired through the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican War, would
soon be petitioning for statehood. North and South began a long and bitter
struggle over whether the territories would enter the Union as free or slave
states.
A | Missouri Compromise |
Under the Constitution of the United
States, the federal government had no authority to interfere with slavery within
the states. Northern opponents of slavery could hope only to prevent it from
spreading. They tried to do this in 1818, when Missouri sought admission to the
Union with a constitution permitting slavery. After two years of bitter
controversy a solution was found in the Missouri Compromise. This compromise
admitted Missouri to the Union as a slave state and admitted Maine as a free
state to keep the balance in the Senate. It also provided that slavery would be
excluded from the still unorganized part of the Louisiana Territory. A line was
drawn from Missouri’s southern boundary, at the latitude of 36°30’, and slavery
would not be allowed in the territory north of that line,with the exception of
Missouri.
B | Compromise of 1850 |
Agitation against slavery continued in
the North. The South reacted by defending it ever more strongly. The Mexican
War, by which the United States made good its annexation of Texas and acquired
New Mexico, Arizona, California, and several of the present Rocky Mountain
states, led to a new crisis. Antislavery forces demanded that slavery be
excluded from any lands ceded by Mexico. Slaveholders pressed for their share of
the new territories and for other safeguards to protect slavery. For a time the
country seemed to be headed for civil war. Again a solution was found in
compromise.The settlement was the Compromise Measures of 1850. Among other
things, this compromise admitted California as a free state and set up
territorial governments in the remainder of the Mexican cession with authority
to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery or not. Moderates in both
North and South hoped that the slavery question was settled, at least for a
while.
C | Uncle Tom’s Cabin |
The year after the compromise a literary
event shook the country. Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote an antislavery novel,
Uncle Tom’s Cabin, that was published serially in a newspaper in 1851 and
in book form the year after. It was widely read in the United States and abroad
and moved many to join the cause of abolition. The South indignantly denied this
indictment of slavery. Stowe’s book increased partisan feeling over slavery and
intensified sectional differences.
D | Kansas-Nebraska Act |
In 1854 Senator Stephen A. Douglas of
Illinois introduced a bill to organize the territories of Kansas and Nebraska,
thus opening these areas to white settlement. As finally passed, the
Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise and provided that settlers
in the territories should decide “all questions pertaining to slavery.” This
doctrine was known as popular sovereignty. Since Kansas and Nebraska were north
of the line established in the Missouri Compromise, the act made possible the
extension of the slave system into territory previously considered free soil.
Soon, settlers in Kansas were engaged in a bloody battle to decide the slavery
issue (see Border War).
The passage of the act caused a political
explosion in the North. Abraham Lincoln, a longtime member of the Whig Party,
represented the view of many thousands when he wrote, in the third person, that
“the repeal of the Missouri Compromise aroused him as he had never been before.”
Antislavery groups met to form a new party, which they named the Republican
Party. By 1856 the party was broad enough and strong enough to put a national
ticket, headed by John C. Frémont, into the presidential election. The
Republicans lost by a relatively narrow margin.
E | Dred Scott Case |
In 1857 the Supreme Court of the United
States added to the mounting tension by its decision in the Dred Scott
Case. In that case, Dred Scott, a slave, sued for his freedom on the grounds
that when his master had taken him to free territories, Scott was no longer a
slave. In separate opinions a majority of the justices held that Scott did not
have the right to file suit in state or federal courts because he was not a
citizen of the United States. As a slave, he was considered property. The
justices continued to write that Congress had no power to exclude slavery from
the territories. Therefore, the Missouri Compromise and other legislation
limiting slavery were unconstitutional.
F | Lincoln-Douglas Debates |
In 1858 Douglas was running for
reelection to the Senate. His opponent was Abraham Lincoln, then the leader of
the Republican Party in Illinois. In a series of seven debates, Lincoln and
Douglas argued, among other things, the question of the extension of slavery.
Douglas stood on his doctrine of popular sovereignty, holding that the people of
the territories could elect to have slavery. They could also elect not to have
it. Lincoln, on the other hand, argued that slavery was “a moral, a social, and
a political wrong” and that it was the duty of the federal government to
prohibit its extension into the territories.
Although the Republicans carried the
state ticket and outvoted the Democrats, the Illinois legislature reelected
Douglas to the Senate. The campaign, widely reported in the newspapers, had an
importance far beyond the fate of the two candidates. It demonstrated to the
South that the Republican Party was steadily growing in strength and that it
would oppose the extension of slavery by every possible means. The campaign also
showed Douglas to be an unreliable ally of the South. He had said repeatedly in
the debates that he did not care whether slavery was voted up or down. In
addition, Lincoln, hitherto known only locally, gained a national reputation
even in defeat.
G | John Brown’s Raid |
As soon as the 1858 elections were over,
political maneuvering began over the 1860 presidential election. Many states
were in the process of choosing delegates to the national conventions when news
of a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), swept the nation. On
October 16, 1859, the raiders had seized the federal armory and arsenal there.
They surrendered two days later. Authorities found that the raid had been led by
John Brown, whose raids and murders in Kansas and Missouri had already made him
an outlaw. Brown and his followers had planned to march their army into the
South to forcibly free slaves. Brown was arrested, tried, and convicted. When he
was executed for his crime, thousands of Northerners hailed him as a martyr,
while Southerners became increasingly fearful of armed intervention in their
states by Northern abolitionists.
H | Election of 1860 |
The slavery question overshadowed all
others in the presidential election year of 1860. At the Democratic National
Convention, held in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 23, the delegates from
the South refused to support Douglas, the leading contender, because of his
position on slavery, and they prevented the naming of a candidate. The
convention adjourned to meet on June 18 in Baltimore, Maryland. On May 16 the
Republican National Convention met in Chicago, Illinois, and passed over the two
most popular aspirants, William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. Instead they
nominated the lesser known Abraham Lincoln. In Baltimore, at the reconvened
Democratic convention after several days of wrangling, the Southern delegates
walked out of the convention. Those who remained nominated Douglas. On June 28
the Southern Democrats nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The
Democratic Party, long a unifying force in the nation, was thus split over
sectional differences into two bitterly opposed factions. The Constitutional
Union Party, a group of conservatives who condemned sectional parties, placed a
fourth ticket, headed by John Bell of Tennessee, in the field.
Because of this division, Lincoln won
easily, although he did not receive a majority of the popular vote. The popular
vote was: Lincoln, 1,866,452; Douglas, 1,376,957; Breckinridge, 849,781; Bell,
588,879. Lincoln won in the electoral college, where he received 180 votes
against 72 for Breckinridge, 39 for Bell, and 12 for Douglas.
I | The South Secedes |
During the campaign many Southerners had
threatened that their states would secede from the Union if Lincoln was elected
because they feared that a Lincoln administration would threaten slavery. Few
people in the North believed them. A month before the election, however,
Governor William Henry Gist of South Carolina wrote the governors of all the
Cotton States except Texas that South Carolina would secede in the event of
Lincoln’s election and asked what course the other states would follow.
As soon as it was certain that Lincoln
had won, the South Carolina legislature summoned a special convention. It met on
December 17, 1860, in Charleston. Three days later the convention unanimously
passed an ordinance dissolving “the union now subsisting between South Carolina
and other States.” Similar conventions were held by other Southern states, and
similar ordinances were adopted, although not by unanimous votes. The first
states to follow South Carolina’s course in 1861 were: Mississippi, January 9;
Florida, January 10; Alabama, January 11; Georgia, January 19; Louisiana,
January 26; and Texas, February 1. In April, Lincoln called for states to send
militias for national service to suppress the rebellion. The upper South refused
to send their militias to coerce the seceded states. Instead they joined the
lower South in secession beginning with Virginia on April 17th; Arkansas, May 6;
North Carolina, May 20; and Tennessee, June 8.
J | The Confederacy |
On February 4, delegates from the first
six states to secede met in Montgomery, Alabama, to set up a provisional
government for the Confederate States of America. Four days later they adopted a
constitution modeled to a large extent on the Constitution of the United States.
On February 9 the provisional Confederate Congress elected Jefferson Davis of
Mississippi provisional president and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia
provisional vice president. Both men were to hold office until February 22,
1862. On that date, after an uncontested election in November 1861, Davis and
Stephens were given permanent status.
K | Lincoln’s Inauguration |
When Lincoln took the oath of office on
March 4, 1861, seven states had seceded and organized a working government.
Southern leaders believed that their action was lawful, but Lincoln and a
majority of Northerners refused to accept the right of Southern states to
secede.
The new president announced in his
inaugural address that he would “hold, occupy, and possess the property and
places belonging to the government.” He promised that the government would not
“assail” the states of the South, and he pleaded with the Southern people not to
act hastily but to give the new administration a chance to prove that it was not
hostile. Lincoln seems to have believed that with time, and without an act of
provocation, the states in secession might return to the Union, but time ran
out.
IV | CIVIL WAR BEGINS |
As the Southern states seceded, they seized
and occupied most of the federal forts within their borders or off their shores.
Only four remained in the hands of the Union. Fort Sumter stood guard in the
mouth of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The other three forts were in
Florida: Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas, Fort Pickens in Pensacola Bay, and
Fort Taylor at Key West. Of the four, Sumter was the most important.
A | Fort Sumter |
In January 1861 President James Buchanan
tried to send troops and supplies to Major Robert Anderson, commander of the
garrison at Fort Sumter. Star of the West, the ship Buchanan sent, was an
unarmed merchant vessel. When the shore batteries at Charleston Harbor fired on
the ship, it sailed away. Lincoln, during his first full day in office, learned
that Anderson had only enough provisions for a month and could obtain no
supplies from the mainland. Sumter had become a symbol of the Union. To give it
up, Lincoln felt, was to violate his sworn oath to protect the properties of the
United States. On the other hand, there was grave doubt that a relief expedition
could succeed in supplying the fort. If it failed, it might touch off war.
Early in April, President Lincoln came to
a decision. He would send a relief expedition to Sumter, but the ships would
land provisions only if they were not attacked. On April 6, he notified the
governor of South Carolina of the action he was taking. Three days later the
relief ships sailed from New York City.
B | Surrender of Fort Sumter |
On April 11, 1861, General P. G. T.
Beauregard, commanding the Confederate troops in Charleston, served Anderson
with a demand that he surrender the fort. Anderson refused, but he stated that
lack of supplies would compel him to give up the fort by April 15. His reply was
so hedged with qualifications that Beauregard considered it unsatisfactory, and,
at 4:30 AM on April 12, he ordered his batteries to open fire on the fort.
For a day and a half, Anderson returned
the fire. The relief expedition, weakened by storms and without the tugs it
needed, appeared at the bar of the harbor but made no effort to land men. On the
second day, with Sumter badly damaged by fire, Anderson surrendered the
fort.
C | North and South Mobilize |
The North responded to the attack on Fort
Sumter with shock and anger. Everywhere people were determined to support the
government in whatever measures it might take. On April 15, Lincoln issued a
proclamation that called up a total of 75,000 militia from the states. At the
same time, calls for troops were sent to the governors of all states that had
remained in the Union. On April 19 a second proclamation announced that Southern
ports would be blockaded. A third proclamation, dated May 3, called for 42,000
three-year volunteers for the regular army and for 18,000 volunteers to serve
one to three years in the navy.
The South responded with equal
determination. Virginia and the rest of the upper South seceded. The Congress of
the Confederacy authorized President Davis to wage the war now beginning. The
border slave states of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and Delaware never seceded.
However, many thousands of men in Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland volunteered
for service in the Confederate armies.
Both the North and South raised troops as
quickly as possible and struggled with the problem of equipping and training
them. The states recruited volunteers and organized them into regiments.
Officers were elected by the men and commissioned by the governors. In the
beginning the length of service was usually short, but as soon as it became
clear that the war would not end with one decisive battle,
three-year-enlistments became the rule, although there were many
exceptions.
In the North the first troops ready for
service were sent to Washington, D.C., and to points along the Ohio River.
Confederate troops were concentrated in Tennessee and in northern Virginia,
where they could threaten the federal capital.
D | Strategies |
As men poured into the armies, Northern
and Southern leaders discussed strategies that would achieve victory. These
strategies contrasted significantly because the two sides had very different war
aims. The Confederacy sought independence and only had to defend itself. The
North sought to restore the Union, which meant it had to compel the seceded
states to give up their hopes to found a new nation. Northern armies would have
to invade the Confederacy, destroy its capacity to wage war, and crush the will
of the Southern people to resist. The Confederacy could win by prolonging the
war to a point where the Northern people would consider the effort too costly in
lives and money to persist. The South had a compelling example in the American
Revolution of a seemingly weaker power defeating a much stronger one. The
colonies had been at an even greater material disadvantage in relation to
Britain than were the Confederate states in relation to the North, yet the
colonies won, with the help of France, by dragging the war out and exhausting
the British will to win. If the North chose not to mount a military effort to
coerce the seceded states back into the Union, the Confederacy would win
independence by default.
Lincoln and other Northern leaders,
however, had no intention of letting the Southern states go without a fight. The
most prominent American military figure in the spring of 1861 was Winfield
Scott, the general-in-chief of the United States Army. Physically frail but with
a brilliant mind, Scott conceived a long-range strategy to bring Northern
victory. Subsequently named the “Anaconda Plan” (after the South American snake
that squeezes its prey to death), Scott’s plan sought to apply pressure on the
Confederacy from all sides. A combined force of naval and army units would sweep
down the Mississippi River, dividing the Confederacy’s eastern and western
states. At the same time, the Union navy would institute a blockade to deny the
Confederacy access to European manufactured goods. Should the South continue to
resist even after the loss of the Mississippi and the closing of its ports,
Scott envisioned a major invasion into the heart of the Confederacy. He
estimated it would take two to three years and 300,000 men to carry out this
strategy.
Except for underestimating, by about half,
the length of time and number of men it would take to bring success, Scott had
sketched the broad strategy the North would implement to defeat the South over
the next four years. The United States Navy applied increasing pressure along
the Confederate coasts, Northern forces took control of the Mississippi River by
the middle of 1863, and large armies marched into Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia,
and the Carolinas, eventually forcing a Confederate surrender in the spring of
1865.
The Confederacy pursued what often is
termed a defensive-offensive strategy. Simply put, Confederate armies generally
adopted a defensive strategy, protecting as much of their territory as possible
against Northern incursions. However, when circumstances seemed to offer an
opportunity to gain a decided advantage over Northern forces, the Confederacy
launched offensives—the three most important of which culminated in the battles
of Antietam (Maryland) and Perryville (Kentucky) in 1862, and Gettysburg
(Pennsylvania) in 1863.
E | Effects of Geography |
Geography played a major role in how
effectively the two sides were able to carry out their strategies. The sheer
size of the Confederacy posed a daunting obstacle to Northern military forces.
Totaling more than 1,940,000 sq km (750,000 sq mi) and without a well-developed
network of roads, the Southern landscape challenged the North’s ability to
supply armies that maneuvered at increasing distances from Union bases. It was
also almost impossible to make the North’s blockade of Southern ports completely
effective because the South’s coastline stretched 5600 km (3500 mi) and
contained nearly 200 harbors and mouths of navigable rivers. The Appalachian
Mountains also hindered rapid movement of Northern forces between the eastern
and western areas of the Confederacy while the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia
offered a protected route through which Confederate armies could invade the
North. The placement of Southern rivers, however, favored the North. The
Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers provided excellent north-south
avenues of advance for Union armies west of the Appalachians. In Virginia,
Confederates defended from behind the state’s principal rivers, but the James
River also served as a secure line of communications and supply for Union
offensives against Richmond in 1862 and again in 1864.
F | Technology |
Technological advances helped both sides
deal with the great distances over which the armies fought. The Civil War was
the first large conflict that featured railroads and the telegraph. Railroads
rapidly moved hundreds of thousands of soldiers and vast quantities of supplies;
the North contained almost twice as many miles of railroad lines as the South.
Telegraphic communication permitted both governments to coordinate military
movements on sprawling geographical fronts.
The combatants also took advantage of
numerous other recent advances in military technology. The most important was
the rifle musket carried by most of the infantrymen on both sides. Prior to the
Civil War, infantry generally had been armed with smoothbore muskets, weapons
without rifling in the barrels. These muskets had an effective range of less
than 90 m (300 ft). As a result, massed attacks had a good chance of success
because one side could launch an assault and not take serious casualties until
they were almost on top of the defenders. The rifle musket, with an effective
range of 225 to 275 m (750 to 900 ft), allowed defenders to break up attacks
long before they reached the defenders’ positions. Combined with field
fortifications, which were widely used during the war, the rifle musket changed
military tactics by making charges against defensive positions more difficult.
It also gave a significant advantage to the defending force.
Other new technologies included ironclad
warships, which were used by both sides; the deployment of manned balloons for
aerial reconnaissance on battlefields, used mainly by the North; the first
sinking of a warship by the South’s submarine, known as the CSS Hunley;
and the arming of significant numbers of soldiers with repeating weapons,
carried mainly by the northern cavalry. The technology for all of these weapons
had been present before the Civil War, but never before had armies applied the
technology so widely.
G | Manpower and Finance |
At the beginning of the war, state
militias provided most of the troops for both Union and Confederate armies. Soon
large numbers of civilians were volunteering for military service. Throughout
the war, the bulk of the forces consisted of volunteers. When the number of
volunteers lagged behind the growing battle casualties, both the Northern and
Southern governments resorted to drafting men into the armies.
The Confederacy passed the first draft act
in April 1862. The Union followed almost a year later. In both North and South,
men of certain classes, occupations, and professions were exempted from the
draft. Furthermore, a man who was drafted in the North could avoid military
service by making a money payment to the government and in both the North and
South, a draftee could hire a substitute to go to war for him. Opposition to the
draft was general throughout the country. In New York City the publication of
the first draft lists caused four days of violent rioting in which many were
killed and $1.5 million worth of property was destroyed. Although the draft
itself did not produce a sufficient number of soldiers, the threat of being
drafted led many to volunteer and collect a bounty, which was paid to
volunteers. Some soldiers were unscrupulous enough to enlist, desert, and
reenlist to collect the bounty more than once.
The Civil War, like all wars, called for
great sums of money to pay troops and supply them with equipment. At the outset
of the war the Confederacy depended on loans, but this source of finance soon
disappeared as Southerners began to be affected financially by the cost of the
war and unable to buy bonds. The South never really tried heavy taxation because
the government had no means to collect taxes and people in the South were
reluctant and often unable to pay them. Instead it relied on paper money, freely
printed. Backed only by the possibility of Southern victory, the money dropped
in value as the war went on and as its outcome became more uncertain. The
Confederacy suffered greatly from severe inflation and debt throughout the war.
The Confederate rate of inflation was about 9000 percent, meaning that an item
that cost $1 in the Confederacy at the beginning of the war would have cost $92
at the end of the war. In contrast, the North’s rate of inflation was only about
80 percent. As the value of money declined, prices rose accordingly.
The Union financed its armies by loans
and taxes to a much greater degree than the Confederacy, even resorting to an
income tax. The people of the North were more prosperous than those of the
South. A national banking system was established by Congress to stimulate sales
of U.S. bonds. Northerners had savings with which they could buy the bonds and
had earnings from which taxes could be taken. The North also resorted to
printing large amounts of paper money, called greenbacks, which were not backed
by gold in the U.S. Treasury. As in the South, though to a much lesser degree,
the paper money dropped in value in relation to gold, and prices rose. However,
the North and South continued to fight as if their treasuries were full.
V | CIVIL WAR, 1861 |
Both sides prepared for what would become a
much longer war than either at first imagined. Hundreds of thousands of
volunteers poured into the armies, and the respective economies tried to adjust
to meet the demands of supplying huge military forces. On the battlefield, the
Confederates won victories in Virginia at the First Battle of Bull Run in
mid-July, and in Missouri at Wilson’s Creek in August. Despite these setbacks,
the Union army and navy took steps to begin operations along the upper
Mississippi River and along the southern Atlantic coast. The goal was to
implement Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan to seize control of the Mississippi
River and institute a naval blockade of the Confederacy. Away from the military
sphere, the Trent Affair presented the Lincoln administration with a major
diplomatic crisis that threatened to involve Britain in the American war.
A | First Battle of Bull Run |
On July 16, 1861, a Union army, led by
General Irvin McDowell, began to move toward Confederate troops under General
Beauregard that were grouped about Manassas Junction, 40 km (25 mi) southwest of
Washington, D.C. The two armies did not meet until July 21. The battle, known as
First Bull Run or First Manassas, started well for the North. However, with the
arrival of Confederate reinforcements and the heroic stand of General Thomas J.
Jackson, who earned the nickname “Stonewall,” the battle ended in an
overwhelming victory for the South. Most of the Union troops straggled back to
Washington in near panic.
The defeat shocked the North. The people
suddenly realized that the war could be a grim struggle that might last for
years. Governors offered more troops and hurried forward regiments with full
ranks. The Union War Department pushed the organization of long-term volunteers.
General George B. McClellan was ordered to Washington from western Virginia,
where he had made a name for himself in a series of small battles. McClellan
took charge of the troops in and around the capital, enforcing discipline and
instituting intensive training. By the end of October he had a well-equipped,
well-trained army that was known as the Army of the Potomac. In November he
replaced the aged general Winfield Scott as general-in-chief.
B | Fighting in the West |
Fighting had also begun farther west. In
St. Louis, Missouri, on May 10, 1861, a Union force captured a large band of men
believed to be training for Confederate service. The seizure of the men caused a
riot in the streets where 30 people were killed. Thereafter, Missouri, torn
between North and South, would be a state with a civil war of its own. On August
10 a Union Army under Nathaniel Lyon attacked a pro-Southern force under Ben
McCulloch and Sterling Price at Wilson’s Creek, near Springfield, in
southwestern Missouri. Lyon and the Union forces were decisively defeated. For
the remainder of 1861 Missouri continued to be a battleground for both Northern
and Southern sympathizers.
As early as April 22, Union forces had
begun to concentrate at Cairo, Illinois, where the Ohio River flows into the
Mississippi. By fall, Kentucky, which had remained neutral for several months,
had shown that it would definitely remain in the Union. Neither side needed to
respect Kentucky’s neutrality any longer. In early September the Confederates
grouped troops at several places in Kentucky, with the largest number in
Columbus, on the Mississippi River. When the Confederates occupied Columbus, the
Kentucky legislature asked the U.S. government for help. In response to the
Confederate troop movements, a Union force under Brigadier General Ulysses S.
Grant occupied Paducah, Kentucky, at the mouth of the Tennessee River. On
November 7, Grant occupied Belmont, Missouri, opposite Columbus. The
Confederates quickly threw a strong force across the river. After a sharp
battle, Grant succeeded in withdrawing most of his 4000 men, and the battle
ended without a clear victory for either side. Belmont was the Union commander’s
first battle of the war.
C | South Carolina Forts |
Also on November 7, 1861, a federal naval
officer, Flag Officer Samuel F. du Pont, took 17 wooden cruisers into Port Royal
Sound on the South Carolina coast. Du Pont’s guns pounded the shore batteries at
Fort Beauregard and Fort Walker so effectively that after several hours the
defenders evacuated the forts. Du Pont sent in convoy transports, supply ships,
and 12,000 men under General Thomas W. Sherman. The men landed with little
opposition late in the afternoon and took possession of the forts. Thus, early
in the war, the Union established an important base for operations along the
southern coast.
D | Trent Affair |
Simultaneously the Union met and survived
its first diplomatic crisis of the war, known as the Trent Affair. In the
fall of 1861 the Confederacy sent James Murray Mason and John Slidell as
commissioners to Britain and France. The two men ran the Northern blockade to
Havana, Cuba. On November 7, 1861, they left Cuba on the British ship
Trent. The next day, Captain Charles Wilkes of the U.S. vessel San
Jacinto stopped the Trent, searched it, and took the two Confederate
representatives on board his own ship and later to Fort Warren in Boston
Harbor.
The North hailed Wilkes as a hero, but by
seizing the commissioners from a neutral ship, he had violated principles of
international law that the United States had upheld for 50 years and had even
gone to war for in 1812. The British ministry demanded an apology and the
release of the two men. Many in the North clamored for war with Britain.
Lincoln, however, was cautious, and in England, Prince Albert, Queen Victoria’s
consort, used his influence on behalf of peace. After allowing time for the war
fever to cool, the United States admitted that Wilkes had acted without
authorization, disavowed him, and liberated the Southern commissioners. A war
that might have been fatal to the Union was thus averted.
VI | CIVIL WAR, 1862 |
A | Overview |
Furious military action flared in both
the eastern and western theaters. In the West, Union victories at forts Henry
and Donelson in February and at Shiloh in April gave the Union control of the
heartland of Tennessee. The Battle of Pea Ridge in March frustrated a
Confederate effort to gain a hold in Missouri, and the capture of New Orleans in
late April cost the Confederacy its largest city and busiest port. Confederates
responded with an invasion of Kentucky in late summer and fall, which ended in
failure at the Battle of Perryville in October. Heavy fighting for the year
ended with the inconclusive battle of Stones River or Murfreesboro, Tennessee,
and unsuccessful opening movements in the Union campaign to capture Vicksburg,
Mississippi. In the East, a Confederate victory at the Seven Days Battle in late
June and early July turned back a major threat to Richmond, followed by another
Southern triumph at Second Bull Run in late August, and the Union’s strategic
success at Antietam in mid-September, which ended Robert E. Lee’s first invasion
of the North. The year closed in Virginia with a costly Union setback at
Fredericksburg in mid-December. The year also saw the Confederacy enact the
first national conscription act in American history, and the North place
emancipation alongside unification as a second great war aim.
B | Minor Actions and Skirmishes |
It would be a mistake to think of the
Civil War only as a succession of major battles. Once the fighting was well
under way, some kind of military action took place almost daily. The month of
October 1862 was typical. Within its 31 days, two battles that resulted in heavy
losses were fought. On October 3 and 4 the Confederates attacked Union forces
holding Corinth, Mississippi. They were repulsed, but not until they had lost
4133 men killed, wounded, and prisoners, against a total Union loss of 2520 men.
On October 8 Union and Confederate troops clashed in the Battle of Perryville,
in Kentucky, and the casualties totaled 7600.
The same month saw smaller conflicts. One
took place on the Hatchie River near Corinth, Mississippi, on October 5, and a
chronicler describes the losses as merely “heavy.” The next day, in a 30-minute
conflict at La Vergne, Tennessee, the Confederates lost 25 men and a Union force
lost 14. On October 10 and 11 the Confederate cavalry leader J. E. B. Stuart
occupied Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, destroyed cars and engines belonging to the
Cumberland Valley Railroad, and seized 500 horses and a large quantity of Union
Army supplies. On October 18 Confederate cavalry commanded by General John Hunt
Morgan dashed into Lexington, Kentucky, and took 125 prisoners. In an action at
Labadieville on the Bayou Lafourche, in Louisiana, on October 27, the
Confederates lost 6 killed, 15 wounded, and 208 taken prisoner, while the Union
loss was reported as 18 killed and 74 wounded. The month of October 1862 also
saw numerous reconnaissances and skirmishes in which only one or two men were
killed or wounded, casualties too small to be reported.
It would also be a mistake to think of
the Civil War as a steady series of military actions, large or small. The
stubbornest enemy of every soldier was not his opponent, but inactivity and
boredom. For every hour a man spent in action, he endured many days during which
he did nothing but respond to the routine formations of reveille, mess call, and
retreat or march mile after mile on expeditions that led nowhere.
As 1862 began, the Army of the Potomac
remained inactive. McClellan, although still popular with his troops, was now
subject to mounting criticism from an impatient administration and public. The
phrase “All quiet on the Potomac” became a taunt.
C | Grant’s Campaign in the West |
On the western front, Grant waited for
permission from his superior, Henry W. Halleck, to strike at the Confederates in
Tennessee. Grant had picked his targets: Fort Henry on the Tennessee River; then
Fort Donelson a few miles to the east on the Cumberland River. In January 1862
Halleck ordered the advance. It was to be a joint campaign with naval forces
under the command of Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote. Foote’s gunboats attacked
Fort Henry on February 6. The fort surrendered before Grant’s troops could be
engaged. Fort Donelson proved to be a different story. Fighting began on
February 12, but Fort Donelson held out until February 16. The two victories
lifted spirits in the North, and Grant’s demand for “unconditional and immediate
surrender” in response to the Confederate commander’s request for terms made the
Union general famous.
The North, its elation heightened by a
decisive Union victory in the Battle of Pea Ridge, also known as the Battle of
Elkhorn Tavern, in Arkansas, on March 7 and 8, soon received more good news with
a victory at Shiloh.
D | Battle of Shiloh |
After taking Fort Donelson, Grant had
wanted to move on the Confederate base in Corinth, Mississippi, where Albert
Sidney Johnston, the Confederate commander in the West, was known to be
assembling troops. Grant was ordered to delay his advance until Union General
Don Carlos Buell, who had been operating in East Tennessee, could join him.
Early on Sunday, April 6, 1862,
Johnston’s army, which had come up to the federal lines undetected, struck
Grant’s army, which was encamped at Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River.
The Battle of Shiloh followed. At the end of the second day of fighting the
Union forces drove back the attackers. Shocking losses, 13,000 out of more than
62,000 Federals and 10,700 out of 40,000 Confederates, appalled both sections of
the country. Although victorious, Grant was accused of lacking elementary
caution and found himself reviled in the North. The South mourned the loss of
Johnston, one of its ablest commanders, who was shot and bled to death.
E | Monitor and Virginia |
In the spring of 1862, McClellan proposed
to Lincoln that the North invade Virginia by way of the peninsula between the
James and York rivers. However, an unexpected development in that area
threatened to prevent the offensive. On March 8 the Confederate ironclad vessel,
the Virginia, which was made from the salvaged Merrimack, entered
Hampton Roads, Virginia, at the mouth of the James. A number of wooden
men-of-war of the Union fleet were in the roads enforcing the blockade. The
Virginia destroyed two ships and disabled another. The North was thrown
into panic. The next morning, however, the Virginia was challenged by the
Monitor, a Union ironclad. The two armored ships bounced shells off each
other’s sides for four hours without doing any serious damage. Although the
battle ended in a draw, the Virginia no longer controlled the area’s
waters. Soon after, when the Confederates withdrew from Norfolk, they destroyed
the Virginia to keep it from falling into Northern hands. McClellan
continued with his plans for invading Virginia.
F | Invasion Plans |
Lincoln agreed with McClellan that an
attempt should be made to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy.
Lincoln favored an overland invasion route. McClellan, however, insisted on
moving the Army of the Potomac by water to the peninsula between the York and
James rivers and attacking Richmond from the southeast. Lincoln finally
consented to this plan on condition that generals Irvin McDowell and Nathaniel
P. Banks be left behind for a short time with about half of the army to defend
Washington, D.C.
G | Shenandoah Valley Campaign |
Lincoln needed the troops in Washington,
D.C., because the federal capital was threatened by Stonewall Jackson, operating
with a handful of men in the Shenandoah Valley. When McClellan’s invasion began,
Jackson was ordered to prevent reinforcements from reaching the Union commander.
Jackson then opened a remarkable campaign, deceiving the enemy into believing he
had a huge army. Even in a battle he lost at Kernstown on March 23, he convinced
his adversary, General James Shields, of his strength although he had only 4200
men. By mobility and inventiveness, Jackson won victories in the valley at
McDowell, Front Royal, Winchester, Cross Keys, and Port Republic before
withdrawing to help in the defense of Richmond. Jackson’s tactics succeeded; to
oppose him and the 16,000 men who fought with him for most of the campaign, the
North held back 55,000 men under Banks, McDowell, and John C. Frémont, men that
McClellan needed badly on the peninsula.
H | Peninsular Campaign |
On April 2, 1862, McClellan arrived with
100,000 men at Fort Monroe, at the southeastern tip of the peninsula. He took
Yorktown after a month’s siege but let its defenders escape. On May 31
Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston tried unsuccessfully to stop McClellan’s
drive at Fair Oaks, only 10 km (6 mi) from Richmond. Johnston was wounded in the
battle, and Robert E. Lee replaced him as commander of the Army of Northern
Virginia. Lee’s courage and courtesy won him the warm affection of his troops.
His outstanding ability as a general was to make him idolized in the South and
respected and feared in the North. At times, as the war progressed, only the
genius and personality of General Robert E. Lee kept the Confederate Army from
crumbling.
Soon after Lee’s appointment, a series of
engagements known as the Seven Days’ Battle took place, lasting from June 25
through July 1, 1862. On the second day, Union General Fitz-John Porter drove
back a Confederate attack at Mechanicsville, 8 km (5 mi) northeast of Richmond.
However, instead of pushing on to Richmond, McClellan began to withdraw. He
ordered Porter to fall back to Gaines’s Mill. There, on June 27, a Confederate
charge led by John B. Hood broke the Union center. McClellan then ordered the
army to fall back on Harrison’s Landing on the James River, where he would have
the cover of Union gunboats. On July 2, after sharp rear guard actions at
Savage’s Station, Frayser’s Farm, and Malvern Hill, the last engagement in the
Seven Days’ Battle, McClellan reached Harrison’s Landing and safety.
The Peninsular campaign was over, with
heavy losses on both sides. There were 16,000 Union casualties. Lee suffered
even more, with casualties of over 20,000 men, about one-fifth of his army.
However, he had stopped McClellan’s drive on Richmond. Lincoln’s administration
held McClellan at fault for not having taken Richmond. McClellan blamed the
administration for not having sent reinforcements.
I | Capture of New Orleans |
Both North and South tended to underrate
an event that took place while the country’s attention was fixed on the
peninsula. To make the blockade of the South effective, the Union had to win
control of New Orleans and the lower Mississippi. Early in April 1862, Flag
Officer David G. Farragut started up the Mississippi with a squadron of combat
ships and transports carrying 18,000 federal troops. Attempts to stop him with
chain cables and fire rafts failed. Farragut pressed on past Fort Jackson and
Fort Saint Philip and arrived at New Orleans, Louisiana, on April 25. He
demanded the surrender of the city. Its Confederate defenders, numbering only
3000, withdrew. For the rest of the war, New Orleans, the biggest Confederate
city and the key to the Mississippi, remained in Union hands. Its loss was a
disaster for the Confederacy.
J | Second Battle of Bull Run |
After the failure of the Peninsular
campaign, Lincoln named Henry W. Halleck general-in-chief of the Union armies.
The Army of Virginia was organized in June 1862. General John Pope, a former
subordinate of Halleck’s, was put in command of the new army. Halleck ordered
McClellan to bring his men back to Washington, where he was to join with the
forces under Pope.
Lee concentrated on preventing this
junction of Union armies. On August 9, 1862, Jackson attacked Pope’s advance
units at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia, and defeated them. Pope
withdrew to the north side of the Rappahannock River and waited for McClellan.
Jackson, with 23,000 men, swung in a wide circle around Pope’s army. On August
26 he swooped down on the federal base at Manassas Junction, captured or
destroyed supplies, and then made a stand at Manassas, the site of the First
Battle of Bull Run.
On August 29, Pope with 62,000 men
attacked Jackson. Jackson withstood the offensive, which was not well
coordinated. Nevertheless, Pope believed that he had defeated Jackson and sent a
wire to that effect to Washington. The following day, James Longstreet and Lee
moved up to reinforce Jackson. Pope’s army was shattered by Longstreet’s
artillery and infantry and fled in disorder. Lee pursued and tried to cut off
Pope’s retreat the next day at Chantilly.
Pope, thoroughly and humiliatingly
beaten, limped back to Washington. He had lost about 14,500 men to Lee’s 9200.
Pope’s force was merged with the Army of the Potomac, and McClellan again was
put in command of the entire force.
K | Battle of Antietam |
After the Second Battle of Bull Run, Lee
decided to invade Maryland. Although he knew that he could not successfully
attack Washington, he wanted to move the fighting out of war-torn Virginia, and
he wanted to interrupt the North’s supply lines. In addition, he thought that a
success in the North might lead France or Britain to recognize the Confederacy.
Lee moved across the Potomac River with his entire army and then sent the
majority of his army under Jackson to Harpers Ferry. They were to seize the area
and open up supply routes to the Shenandoah Valley. He then stationed the rest
of his army at Sharpsburg, near Antietam Creek. McClellan with 75,000 men faced
Lee across the creek. Jackson rejoined Lee after successfully capturing Harpers
Ferry and the additional troups brought the total Confederate forces to about
35,000 soldiers.
The fighting began on September 17, and
despite the superior number of Union forces, the Confederate Army was able to
hold them off. Just as Union General Ambrose E. Burnside captured a bridge and
led his men across the creek, A. P. Hill arrived with fresh reinforcements for
Lee. The Union attack was repulsed, and the fighting stopped. Lee led his men in
orderly retreat back to Virginia, and the North did not pursue him. Both sides
had lost heavily, with total Union casualties of about 12,500 and Confederate
casualties of about 10,500. The fighting was so fierce and the casualties so
high that Antietam was the bloodiest one-day battle of the Civil War (and in all
of U.S. history).
Although the outcome of the fighting was
indecisive, Antietam was a major success for the Union. As a result of the
battle, Lee lost approximately one-third of his men and gave up the idea of
invading the North. Diplomatically the Confederate defeat at Antietam made it
more difficult for France or Britain to openly support the Confederacy.
L | Emancipation Proclamation |
Antietam was also the signal for a major
shift in Union policy. From the beginning of the war, President Lincoln had
insisted that his primary aim was the restoration of the Union, not the
abolition of slavery. As the war continued, however, Lincoln saw that the
preservation of the Union depended, in part, on the destruction of slavery. The
Lincoln Administration believed that if they made the abolition of slavery a war
aim, they could stop Britain or France from recognizing the Confederacy. Both
Britain and France had long since abolished slavery and would not support a
country fighting a war to defend it. Furthermore, emancipation might allow the
North to undercut the South’s war effort, which was supported by slave
labor.
Emancipation would also clarify the
status of slaves who were running away to the Union lines. These black people
were refugees and later soldiers in the Union Army. This activity, called
self-emancipation, presented a problem to the Union Army. Were these black
people free, or enslaved? Should they be returned to their Southern masters
under the fugitive slave laws? Some military leaders had already tried to deal
with this dilemma. Benjamin F. Butler, a Northern general stationed in Virginia,
claimed that he would not return slaves to their masters because they were
property, and in war time, the enemy’s property can be seized. The Lincoln
Administration agreed with Butler’s policy.
In addition, public opinion in the North
had begun to favor abolition, and Congress, no longer needing to be concerned
about the Southern states, had started passing legislation to end slavery. In
1862 Congress abolished slavery in the District of Columbia and prohibited
slavery in the territories.
On July 22, 1862, Lincoln had informed
his Cabinet that he intended to free the slaves in states that were in active
rebellion. However, they had persuaded him to wait until a Northern victory
because it would seem less like a desperate measure. Antietam served that
purpose. Five days afterward, on September 22, Lincoln issued the first, or
preliminary, Emancipation Proclamation. The final proclamation, issued on
January 1, 1863, freed the slaves only in the states that had rebelled:
Arkansas, Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North
Carolina, and parts of Louisiana and Virginia.
The president issued the proclamation
under the powers granted during war to seize the enemies’ property. Lincoln only
had the authority to end slavery in the Confederate states, and then the slaves
were freed only as the Union armies made their way throughout the South. In the
states that remained loyal to the Union slavery was protected by the
Constitution. Slavery was only completely abolished throughout the United States
by the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, which was ratified in 1865.
M | The Battle of Perryville |
In August and September 1862, on the
western front, the Confederate army invaded Kentucky. Although Kentucky was a
slave state, it had not seceded from the Union. The people of Kentucky were
divided over the issue of the war, and Kentucky recruits joined both the
Confederate and the Union forces. When General Braxton Bragg, who was in charge
of the Army of Tennessee, and Major General Edmund Kirby Smith decided to move
into Kentucky, they split their forces and headed north from Chattanooga,
Tennessee. The Union forces in Kentucky were under the command of Major General
Don Carlos Buell. The armies met at the Battle of Perryville on October 8, 1862.
The battle was marked by confusion on both sides and did not produce a clear
victory, but the Confederates retreated.
N | Fredericksburg |
After the Battle of Antietam, McClellan
refused to take the offensive against Lee’s army. His patience at an end,
Lincoln relieved McClellan, this time permanently. The command of the Army of
the Potomac was given to Ambrose E. Burnside. On December 13, 1862, Burnside’s
troops engaged the Army of Northern Virginia, placed in strong defensive
positions on the hills near Fredericksburg, Virginia, south of the Rappahannock
River. The result was a slaughter. Union losses in killed, wounded, and missing
amounted to 12,600, as opposed to Confederate losses of 5300. In January 1863
Lincoln relieved Burnside and put General Joseph Hooker in command of the
army.
O | Murfreesboro, or Stones River |
Two weeks after Fredericksburg, the
western front was the scene of an even bloodier battle. On December 31, 1862,
General William S. Rosecrans, commanding the Union Army of the Cumberland, and
General Braxton Bragg, leading the Confederate Army of Tennessee, engaged each
other at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, 47 km (29 mi) southeast of Nashville. After
three days of fighting, in which the two armies lost nearly 25,000 of the 76,000
men engaged, Bragg withdrew from the field, but he left the Army of the
Cumberland too badly hurt to resume operations for several months.
P | Naval Warfare |
At the beginning of the war the Union
blockade of Southern ports was not effective, because the North lacked ships to
make it so. Blockade-runners, mainly British, made fortunes by landing cargoes
of munitions and scarce goods at Southern ports. The Union, however, soon
converted all kinds of seagoing craft to armed blockaders and began tightening
the net. Armed forces closed a number of important ports. One federal expedition
took Roanoke Island, North Carolina, on February 8, 1862. Another occupied New
Bern, North Carolina, on March 14. A third expedition captured Beaufort, South
Carolina, on April 11. Fort Pulaski, which guarded the approach to Savannah,
Georgia, was taken by the Federals on the same day. At the end of 1862 the
blockade was well on the way to strangling Southern commerce. In 1860, $191
million of cotton was exported, but the 1862 cotton exports amounted to only $4
million. In addition, the South had difficulty importing goods such as
ammunition, shoes, and salt.
Although the Confederacy had no navy, it
still found ways to cripple Northern commerce. In spite of its lack of
shipyards, it managed to equip a number of ships for service at sea. It also
ordered the construction or purchase of other ships in England. Over the
protests of the Union government, three English-built ships, the Florida,
the Alabama, and the Shenandoah, were delivered to Confederate
naval officers and given the task of destroying the U.S. merchant fleet. These
three raiders alone inflicted damage estimated at $16.6 million on Union
shipping. The loss, while serious, was trivial in comparison to the effect of
the Union blockade on the Southern economy.
VII | CIVIL WAR, 1863 |
A | Overview |
The year opened poorly for the Northern
military. In the West, their efforts to capture Vicksburg during the winter and
spring were continually frustrated. In the East, the Union forces were defeated
at Chancellorsville in early May. The North rebounded in June and July with a
trio of successes: the Tullahoma campaign, which cleared major Confederate
forces from Tennessee; the capture of Vicksburg, which together with the fall of
Port Hudson, Louisiana, gave the North control of the Mississippi River; and the
Battle of Gettysburg, where Lee’s last movement across the Potomac River ended
in bloody repulse. Another success at Chattanooga in late November closed a most
auspicous year of campaigning for the North. The Union also adopted a national
conscription act in 1863, prompting wide opposition and considerable violence.
The Emancipation Proclamation went into effect on January 1, and soon thereafter
the North began recruiting black soldiers on a large scale. Shortages of food
and material goods became quite severe in the Confederacy, which experienced
bread riots at several locations.
B | Beginning of the Vicksburg Campaign |
In December 1862 Grant began to gather
troops for a campaign directed at opening the Mississippi River to the Union and
dividing the Confederacy in two. The key to the Confederate defenses was
Vicksburg, the heavily fortified Mississippi city that commanded the river from
its high bluffs. Grant first planned to march south from Memphis, Tennessee,
while another army under William Tecumseh Sherman proceeded by water to
Chickasaw Bluffs, just north of Vicksburg. Grant’s advance was stopped on
December 20, when Confederate General Earl Van Dorn cut in behind him and
destroyed Grant’s supply base at Holly Springs, Mississippi. Sherman’s advance
continued, but a week later he was repulsed with heavy losses at the Battle of
Chickasaw Bluffs. His report was short but accurate: “I reached Vicksburg at the
time appointed, landed, assaulted, and failed.”
Before crossing the river, Grant had
sent the federal cavalry commander Benjamin H. Grierson on a daring raid that
Grant hoped would divert the attention of the Confederates from his own
operations. Grierson and 1700 men left La Grange, Tennessee, on April 17, 1863.
Sixteen days later, after covering 966 km (600 mi), he reached Baton Rouge,
Louisiana. He had destroyed miles of railroad, taken 500 prisoners, and eluded
thousands of Confederate troops sent against him. He achieved this great feat
with the loss of only 24 men.
C | Chancellorsville |
At the same time that the western army
was poised on the banks of the Mississippi, the Union Army of the Potomac and
the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia were locked in battle. Hooker had
spent three months strengthening the Army of the Potomac, restoring discipline,
and building up supplies. When the warm winds of spring dried the roads, he had
134,000 well-equipped men ready for duty. In late April, leaving part of his
army outside Fredericksburg, he moved 70,000 troops across the Rappahannock as a
first step in a drive on Richmond. Lee, learning that Hooker had divided his
force, also left part of his army in Fredericksburg. He sent another part under
Stonewall Jackson against Hooker’s right wing. On May 2, 1863, Jackson hit with
such force that Hooker’s whole line was driven back. The next day, Lee attacked
Hooker’s center with the remainder of the army. Hooker had reserves waiting to
be called in, but he had been stunned by a shell that had struck headquarters
and was unable to give the necessary orders. His line gave way. On May 5 Hooker
retreated north of the Rappahannock. The Army of the Potomac had again failed to
reach Richmond.
Union casualties at the Battle of
Chancellorsville were 17,300 against 12,750 Confederate casualties. However, the
Union percentage lost was much lower, and Lee and his army suffered grievously
because of the death of Stonewall Jackson, Lee’s ablest subordinate.
D | Fall of Vicksburg |
In the west Grant turned to new land and
water tactics in cooperation with the Union river fleet commanded by Admiral
David D. Porter. From January through March 1863, four attempts were made to
bypass Vicksburg by cutting canals or changing the course of rivers. All
failed.
In April Grant put his final plan into
operation. He would march his army down the west side of the Mississippi to a
point below Vicksburg. Porter’s gunboats and barges would run past the
Confederate artillery on the river, thus supplying the army and furnishing
transports for ferrying the men to the east side of the river. The army would
then march into Mississippi behind Vicksburg. It would either defeat the
Confederates in open battle or drive them into the river stronghold, where they
would be forced to surrender sooner or later. On the night of April 16, 1863,
Porter ran through the fire from the shore batteries and lost only 1 of his 12
boats. A few nights later, 6 transports and 13 barges tried the same feat, and 5
transports and 6 barges came through. In spite of the losses, Grant had enough
supplies and shipping to proceed with his plan.
Along the Mississippi, Grant moved out
from his base on May 7 with 44,000 men. His first objective was Jackson,
Mississippi, the capital of the state, held by 6000 Confederates. In a battle on
May 12, the Confederates were defeated and withdrew northward.
Having disposed of the only force that
could threaten his rear, Grant turned west. At Champion’s Hill, halfway between
Jackson and Vicksburg, two of his corps commanders, James B. McPherson and
McClernand, attacked John C. Pemberton, the commander of the Confederate Army
defending Vicksburg. The battle, fought on May 16, was the most severe of the
campaign. The Union troops were victorious, and Pemberton retreated. On the next
day he made a stand at the Big Black River, was again defeated, and withdrew his
army to prepared positions in Vicksburg. After two assaults in which he lost
heavily, Grant decided that Vicksburg would have to be starved out. The siege
lasted almost six weeks, until July 4, 1863, when Pemberton surrendered.
The Campaign of Vicksburg was of utmost
importance to the cause of the Union. It took a Confederate army from the field
(the captured Confederates were paroled) and freed Grant’s army for other
operations. It cut the Confederacy in two and opened a highway for trade between
the Middle West and the outside world. In Lincoln’s picturesque phrase, “the
Father of Waters” would henceforth flow “unvexed to the sea.”
E | Tullahoma Campaign |
One reason for the success of Grant’s
campaign was that Confederate troops that might have been sent from Tennessee to
relieve Pemberton were held there by the Army of the Cumberland. After
Murfreesboro, Rosecrans kept his army in its camps until the middle of June,
much to the dismay of the impatient authorities in Washington. Bragg, however,
opposing Rosecrans with the Army of Tennessee, dared not weaken his forces. When
Rosecrans did move, he undertook a series of maneuvers known as the Tullahoma
campaign, which with very little fighting forced Bragg to retreat. In two weeks,
Bragg moved about 200 km (about 125 mi) to the southeast and left Middle
Tennessee defenseless.
F | Gettysburg |
While Grant slowly strangled Vicksburg
and Rosecrans feinted Bragg halfway across Tennessee, Lee decided to march his
troops north toward Pennsylvania. There were several reasons for this bold move.
The Confederate government hoped that a decisive victory on Northern soil would
win foreign recognition of the Confederacy. In addition, Lee argued that an
invasion of the wealthiest urban area of the North would probably lessen the
pressure on Confederate forces in Tennessee and at Vicksburg. Perhaps most
important, the lush Cumberland Valley would yield food and clothing for Lee’s
ragged and hungry army.
On June 3, 1863, Lee began to move his
Army of Northern Virginia across the Rappahannock. Hooker, who was aware of
Lee’s movements, shifted the Army of the Potomac northward, using it as a shield
between Lee and the capital at Washington. Late in June, Hooker resigned his
command, convinced that he had lost the confidence of the administration. On
June 28, General George G. Meade replaced Hooker. Meade had been one of Hooker’s
corps commanders.
On July 1 advance units of the two
armies stumbled into each other near the little town of Gettysburg,
Pennsylvania, 16 km (10 mi) north of the Maryland border. Both Lee and Meade
realized that a battle was unavoidable. Fighting began that day. Union troops,
after early reverses, managed to hold a strategic position on Cemetery Hill. The
second day, July 2, saw confused fighting on both Union flanks. Generals
Longstreet and John B. Hood assaulted high ground at the Peach Orchard and
Little Round Top, but by night the Federals held key positions. The most
dramatic action of the battle came on the third day, when General George E.
Pickett led a gallant but hopeless charge against the Union center, “the bloody
angle.” Pickett’s drive tried to charge across an open field at Cemetery Ridge,
but concentrated Union fire stopped him. The battle was a decisive Union
victory, but both armies suffered very heavy losses. Meade’s casualties numbered
23,000 and Lee’s about 25,000. Lee began his retreat on July 4. To the great
disappointment of President Lincoln, Meade did not pursue the Confederate army
and make Lee stand and fight. By July 14 the Confederate commander had brought
the remnant of his army back to the safety of Virginia. Gettysburg had been a
severe defeat for the South, both in terms of men lost and the army’s morale. In
November 1863 President Lincoln dedicated a national cemetery to those who had
died in the Battle of Gettysburg. His speech, known as the Gettysburg Address,
became famous as an expression of the democratic spirit and reconfirmed
Lincoln’s intention to reunite the country.
G | Discontent in the North |
From many points of view, Gettysburg and
Vicksburg were among the most important Union victories in more than two years
of war. Strangely, they coincided with a violent outburst of disloyalty in the
North. From the beginning of the conflict, Lincoln had resorted to measures that
many Northerners opposed. His suspension of the writ of habeas corpus enabled
him to hold critics of the government in prison indefinitely. The Emancipation
Proclamation had angered many who were willing to fight for the Union but not
for the abolition of slavery. The military draft, which bore hard on men too
poor to pay for substitutes, stirred thousands to the brink of revolt. Many
others were simply weary of a war to which they could see no end. They wanted
peace at almost any price.
The Peace Democrats, often called
Copperheads, did not support the Lincoln Administration or the war. One of the
most persuasive was Clement L. Vallandigham, an Ohio Democrat who had served
three terms in Congress. On May 5, 1863, military authorities arrested
Vallandigham after he had made an extreme antiwar speech in Mount Vernon, Ohio.
A military court sentenced him to prison, but Lincoln changed the penalty to
banishment to the Confederacy. On June 1 publication of the Chicago
Times, which was violently anti-Lincoln, was suspended. At the urging of
prominent Chicagoans who were sincerely devoted to free speech and a free press,
the President quickly lifted the suspension. Before Lincoln acted, however,
Fernando Wood, the mayor of New York City, and other fiery opponents of the war
inflamed the tempers of the thousands who attended a protest meeting at Cooper
Union in that city.
On July 13, 1863, in spite of the signs
of trouble, federal authorities tried to put the draft into effect in New York
City. A mob, made up mostly of foreign-born laborers, chiefly Irish Americans,
who could not pay for substitutes, attacked the draft headquarters and burned
and pillaged residences, stores, hotels, and saloons. For four days the mob
fought off police, firemen, and the local militia. During that time, property
worth $1.5 million was destroyed, and many people lost their lives. A number of
the victims of the mob were blacks. The government rushed in troops from the
Army of the Potomac and restored order. A month later, drawings for the draft
took place without disorder. There were disturbances in other parts of the
country, but they did not compare with those of New York City.
H | Prison Camps |
After two years each side had taken
thousands of prisoners. In the beginning most prisoners were exchanged and
returned to their armies after a few months, but after 1863 far fewer exchanges
were taking place. One reason for decreasing exchanges was the South’s treatment
of Northern black soldiers. The South regarded black soldiers as runaway slaves
and refused to treat them as legitimate prisoners of war. Confederate policy was
to execute or enslave them. Although the South did not systematically carry out
this order, the North was reluctant to continue prisoner exchanges. In April
1864 Grant stopped almost all exchanges because the South, with fewer soldiers,
had more to lose. The North and its superior manpower could better withstand the
loss of its troops.
The treatment of prisoners has been the
subject of heated argument. Union prisoners suffered greatly in such Confederate
camps as Andersonville Prison in Georgia, and Confederate prisoners suffered in
such Union prisons as Camp Douglas, Illinois. In both sections the death rate
among prisoners was appalling. Prison conditions, rather than willful
mistreatment, caused most of the deaths. Poorly clothed Southern soldiers could
not stand the harsh Northern winters. Northern soldiers suffered from the
intense heat of Southern summers. Even when the supply of food was sufficient,
the food was of poor quality. In general, prisoners received the same rations as
the troops who guarded them. However, the fact that deplorable sanitary
conditions resulted from ignorance and overcrowding, rather than from malice,
did not make their effect less deadly.
I | Medical Care |
Disease killed far more men in both
armies than did bullets. Quartermasters knew little about balanced nutrition and
very often could not have obtained the proper food anyway. Most of the time the
men did their own cooking, usually in frying pans. Dysentery was common and was
frequently fatal. Surgeons used no antiseptics and operated in the field with
their arms bloodstained to the elbows. Medical knowledge was so inadequate that
the sick or wounded soldier sent to a hospital was as likely to find it a step
to the grave as a way to recovery.
In the North a voluntary organization,
called the United States Sanitary Commission, did much to care for the sick and
wounded and to provide small comforts for men in the field. The commission
recruited both male and female nurses and sent delicacies and extra clothing to
hospitals. Another voluntary organization, the United States Christian
Commission, distributed Bibles, reading matter, and stationery. In addition,
individuals often helped the war effort with their time or money. One was Clara
Barton who organized efforts to provide food and medical supplies, and nursed
wounded soldiers. The South had no general relief and aid organizations, but
many local groups did what they could to make the life of the Confederate
soldier more tolerable.
J | Chickamauga |
After the draft riots, the summer of
1863 slipped by in quiet except for the nameless skirmishes and minor
engagements that took place somewhere almost every day. Early in September,
Union General Rosecrans and the Army of the Cumberland began a campaign against
Chattanooga, Tennessee, an important rail center and supply point where Bragg
had concentrated his troops. Rosecrans split his forces so that they came toward
Chattanooga from different directions.
Knowing that Rosecrans had divided his
forces, Bragg decided to give up Chattanooga, withdraw to the south, and attack
Rosecrans’s forces piecemeal as they came out of the mountain passes to the west
and north. At the last minute the federal commander realized the danger and
frantically drew together his scattered troops.
On September 19 the two armies clashed
along West Chickamauga Creek, a few miles south of Chattanooga. On the afternoon
of the next day, Rosecrans, believing that he had been disastrously defeated,
left the field for Chattanooga, where he planned to make a final stand. However,
General George H. Thomas, the commander of the Federal 14th Corps, stood his
ground, saved the day, and won the nickname by which he was ever after known,
“Rock of Chickamauga.”
On the Confederate side, Bragg refused
to deliver the final blow that might have won the battle decisively for the
Confederacy, despite urges from Longstreet and Nathan B. Forrest. The Union
troops, or what was left of them, retreated toward Chattanooga in good
order.
K | Siege of Chattanooga |
Rosecrans soon discovered that his army
was under siege. The Confederates held his supply routes. His men went on short
rations and, in the cool days of fall, suffered for lack of firewood. When
Rosecrans informed the authorities in Washington that he would be forced to give
up Chattanooga, he was relieved of duty. Grant, who had been appointed on
October 16 to the command of all the Union armies on the western front, hurried
to Chattanooga. In less than a week he opened new supply routes. Soon the Union
troops were reclothed, well fed, and supplied with enough ammunition to take the
offensive.
L | Fall of Chattanooga |
Confederate troops under Bragg had
occupied two strong positions: Lookout Mountain, south of the town, and
Missionary Ridge, a steep 8-km (5-mi) long height that flanked Chattanooga and
the Tennessee River on the southeast. In three days, November 23 to November 25,
Grant’s troops performed the seemingly impossible feat of dislodging the
Confederates from both positions. The taking of Missionary Ridge on November 25
was especially spectacular. The Union troops had been ordered to take only the
first Confederate line near the base of the hills, but they swept upward without
orders and overwhelmed the defenders. During the night, Bragg withdrew toward
Dalton, Georgia. On November 30, Jefferson Davis accepted Bragg’s resignation.
Soon afterward, command of the Army of Tennessee went to Joseph E.
Johnston.
M | Grant Becomes Union Commander |
With the onset of winter, military
operations practically stopped. In Washington, Lincoln came to a decision. In
two and a half years of war, he had seen one Union commander rise above all
others. Grant had made mistakes. At Shiloh he had been caught off guard. At
Vicksburg he had ordered assaults that had cost many lives to no purpose.
However, he fought, without complaining, with the men and resources the War
Department could give him, and he won. On March 9, 1864, Grant was promoted to
the rank of lieutenant general, a grade that Congress had recently revived for
his benefit. Three days later, Lincoln placed him in command of all the Union
armies, and Grant came east to fight.
N | Britain Abandons the South |
Meanwhile, the Union had won a major
diplomatic battle. Since the beginning of the war, the Confederacy had had a
naval officer, James D. Bulloch, in Britain to buy or contract for cruisers to
raid Northern commerce. In 1861 and 1862, Bulloch had managed to acquire and
equip several ships. In 1862 he contracted through third parties with the
British shipbuilding firm of Laird Brothers for two rams, or ironclads, which he
believed would be able to sweep Northern commerce from the seas and destroy the
trade from the Atlantic seaports of the Union.
Charles Francis Adams, the Union
minister to Britain, knew very well that the rams were intended for Confederate
service. Time after time, Adams warned the British government of the destination
of the rams and demanded that their delivery be prevented. He could get no
promise. The British government, however, had decided to prevent departure of
the vessels and, on October 9, 1863, seized the ships. Bulloch sadly reported to
the Confederate secretary of the navy: “No amount of discretion or management on
my part can effect the release of the ships.” Thereafter the Confederacy could
no longer hope for aid from Europe.
VIII | CIVIL WAR, 1864 |
A | Overview |
The year 1864 began optimistically for
the North, which expected Grant, its new general-in-chief, to bring victory.
However, the bloody Overland Campaign in Virginia during May and June, which
featured clashes at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor, depressed
Northern morale, as did the failure of General Sherman to capture Atlanta. A
swift strike through the Shenandoah Valley brought a small Confederate army to
the outskirts of Washington in early July, which further alarmed the North. By
August, Northern morale had reached its lowest point of the war, and there were
expectations that Lincoln would be defeated in his bid for reelection in
November. As Grant and Lee settled into a siege along the Petersburg-Richmond
lines, Union victories at Mobile Bay in late August, at Atlanta in early
September, and in the Shenandoah Valley in September and October raised Northern
morale and ensured Lincoln’s reelection. Lincoln’s political triumph in turn
guaranteed that the North would continue to prosecute the war vigorously. The
year ended with Union victories at Franklin and Nashville, Tennessee, in
November and December, and Sherman’s destructive march across the interior of
Georgia. Hopes for Confederate success had virtually ended, the Northern
blockade was tightening, and civilian and military morale in the South sagged
badly.
For 1864 Grant planned an aggressive
campaign. In the spring, when the roads had dried, the Army of the Potomac,
still under Meade’s direct command, moved against Lee in Virginia. Union General
Benjamin F. Butler’s Army of the James would advance from Bermuda Hundred,
Virginia, on the James River. Sherman, now in full command in the West, would
take the offensive against Johnston’s army and Atlanta. For these moves the
Union armies could muster 235,000 men. The Confederates had no more than 150,000
to oppose them.
B | The Wilderness |
On May 4 the Army of the Potomac
crossed the Rapidan River in Virginia and camped in the Wilderness, a region of
tangled woods and underbrush south of the old battlefields of Chancellorsville
and Fredericksburg. The next day the federal troops engaged Lee’s Army of
Northern Virginia. A two-day battle followed. Maneuvering was next to
impossible, and much of the time the men of the two armies could barely see one
another. The losses, however, were heavy: about 18,000 on the Union side and
about 11,000 for the Confederates.
C | Spotsylvania and Cold Harbor |
When such losses had been inflicted on
the Army of the Potomac in the past, its commanders had either halted or
retreated. Now a new man was giving orders. Advance, Grant said, and strike Lee
on his right flank. From May 8 to May 18, fighting swirled around the hamlet of
Spotsylvania Courthouse, Virginia. The Union lost more than 17,000 men without
decisive results. Grant again ordered an advance around Lee’s right flank. This
time, Lee shifted his army to meet the Union drive head on. At Cold Harbor,
Virginia, north of the Chickahominy River and within sight of Richmond, Grant
called for a frontal advance. On June 3 the federal troops suffered 7000
casualties during one day of the Battle of Cold Harbor, as the Union troops
struggled against the entrenched Confederates, who lost fewer than 1500. For the
next ten days the two armies were inactive, camped within sight of each
other.
D | Petersburg |
Grant then decided to cross the James
River, circle around Lee’s army and the Confederate capital to Petersburg, and
fall suddenly on Richmond from the south before Lee could come to its defense.
The plan was skillfully put into operation and almost succeeded. Just in time,
however, the Confederates became aware of Grant’s movements. Beauregard, with a
numerically inferior force, managed to stop Grant’s advance at Petersburg. Heavy
fighting took place from June 15 to June 18, when Lee arrived from Richmond with
his main army. Unable to take Petersburg by direct assault, Grant prepared to
starve the city into surrender. Before the siege ended almost a year later, the
entire Confederacy was on the verge of collapse.
E | Sinking of the Alabama |
Grant’s failure to take Richmond in a
smashing attack spread gloom in the North. An important Union naval victory was
won at the same time, but news of it was slow in coming.
The Confederate cruiser Alabama,
since its commissioning in May 1862, had sunk or captured more than $6.5 million
worth of Union merchant ships and cargoes. On June 11, 1864, the Alabama
entered the harbor at Cherbourg, France, to land prisoners and be repaired.
Three days later the USS Kearsarge, which had been tracking the raider,
came into port to pick up the Alabama’s prisoners. Ordered to withdraw
beyond the territorial limits, Captain John A. Winslow of the Kearsarge
waited for his prey. Captain Raphael Semmes of the Alabama sent out word
that as soon as he had taken on coal he would come out and fight. The duel began
on the morning of June 19 and ended less than two hours later, when the
Alabama, mortally wounded, slipped stern first into the sea. The
Kearsarge had destroyed the Confederacy’s greatest single menace to
Northern commerce.
The Florida, second among the
great Confederate raiders, was captured in violation of international law in the
harbor at Bahia (now Salvador), Brazil, in October 1864. The Shenandoah,
which had been taking prize vessels, chiefly whalers, in the Pacific, did not
learn that the war was over until August 2, 1865. It succeeded in making its way
to Liverpool, England, in November 1865, and there its captain turned it over to
the English authorities.
F | Sherman Moves Into Georgia |
While the Kearsarge was
establishing Union supremacy at sea, a great Union land victory was developing.
In March 1864, when Grant became general-in-chief, Sherman was appointed supreme
commander in the West. Soon Sherman started south with 105,000 Union troops of
the Army of the Cumberland, the Army of Tennessee, and the Army of the Ohio. At
Dalton, in northern Georgia, Johnston had posted the Confederate Army of
Tennessee in a strong position. Sherman sent his troops around the Confederate
left flank. On May 12 Johnston dropped back to Resaca, Georgia, 24 km (15 mi)
farther south, and took another strong position. Again Sherman moved around
Johnston’s left flank. Again Johnston retreated, this time to Allatoona,
Georgia. In a month, Sherman advanced 129 km (80 mi). There had been continuous
fighting but no large battles and no heavy casualties.
G | Atlanta |
On June 27 Sherman, whose patience was
worn out by Johnston’s evasive tactics, decided to attack the Confederate lines
on Kennesaw Mountain. In a few hours, Sherman learned the lesson that Cold
Harbor had taught Grant. The Union troops were repulsed with a loss of 2000
killed and wounded. Johnston had about 500 casualties.
After Kennesaw Mountain, Sherman
resorted again to flanking movements. Johnston continued to retreat, thus
keeping his army intact and ready to deliver a stinging blow should he catch
Sherman off guard. By early July, Johnston had drawn back to the outskirts of
Atlanta. Sherman shifted his troops into a crescent, confronting Johnston on the
northwest, west, and southwest.
On July 17 Jefferson Davis, who
disliked Johnston and had little faith in his ability, relieved him and
appointed General John B. Hood in his place. Hood, who was brave but rash, could
be counted on to use tactics different from those of his predecessor. On July 20
and on July 22, Hood sent his men from their trenches to strike at Sherman’s
lines. Both attacks were repulsed. On July 28 Hood tried again, with the same
result. By this time, in the fighting around Atlanta, the Federals had lost 9000
men; the Confederates, with smaller forces, had lost 10,000 killed, wounded, and
captured.
H | Attempt on Washington, D.C. |
While Sherman faced Atlanta, waiting
for a chance to pierce the lines of the defenders, and while Grant besieged
Petersburg, the Confederate high command made a desperate move. Lee sent one of
his corps commanders, General Jubal A. Early, to threaten the Union capital.
Early went down the Shenandoah Valley, crossed the Potomac River, and took
supplies and money from the communities through which he passed. On July 9, at a
point on the Monocacy River, 48 km (30 mi) from Washington, Union General Lew
Wallace faced Early with a small force. The federal commander courted certain
defeat, but he delayed Early long enough to permit troops from Grant’s army to
reach Washington and defend the city. Although Early took up a position within
sight of the Capitol on July 11, he realized that an assault was hopeless and
returned to the valley.
I | Fall of Mobile |
As the summer advanced, the war took a
new and decisive turn. On August 5 a federal fleet commanded by Admiral Farragut
forced its way into Mobile Bay, in Alabama. Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, which
defended the city, surrendered on August 8 and August 23, and Mobile was closed
to blockade-runners and lost to the Confederacy.
J | Fall of Atlanta |
The pace of the war continued to
quicken, bringing fresh Union victories. On September 1 Hood evacuated Atlanta.
The next day, Sherman’s troops marched into the city, flags flying and bands
playing. The fall of Atlanta was extremely important to the Union because of its
strategic position and its impact on Southern morale.
K | Shenandoah Valley |
Other Union victories followed. After
Early’s threat to Washington, Lee gave him a free hand to operate in the
Shenandoah Valley. Lee hoped that Grant would be forced to weaken his grip on
Petersburg to meet the new threat. Grant acted as Lee anticipated, but the
federal commander sent a general who proved to be more than a match for Early.
In three battles, at Winchester on September 19, at Fishers Hill on September
22, and at Cedar Creek on October 19, Philip H. Sheridan not only drove Early’s
troops from the valley but also devastated the area so thoroughly that its rich
farms could no longer send food and supplies to Lee’s troops.
L | Political Conventions |
While the armies went about their
deadly business in the spring and summer of 1864, Northern politicians started
the machinery for another presidential election. Many people in the North were
dissatisfied with Lincoln. Battle losses in the East had been staggering, and
Grant had neither destroyed Lee’s army nor taken Richmond. Many Republicans
complained that Lincoln was too moderate on the slavery question or was too
easygoing in the prosecution of the war. A great many Democrats had come to
believe that the South could not be defeated and wanted peace at almost any
price.
The Republican National Convention met
in Baltimore, Maryland, on June 7. To attract War Democrats, the name of the
party was changed to the National Union Party. Although many delegates would
have been happy to replace Lincoln, the administration’s control of the party
machinery secured his renomination with ease. His running mate was Andrew
Johnson, a Democrat from Tennessee who had remained loyal to the Union. The
platform called for the unconditional restoration of the Union.
On August 29 the Democratic National
Convention met in Chicago, Illinois. The delegates hoped to elect their
candidate by playing up the war situation as it was at that moment, with Grant’s
having failed to take Richmond and Sherman stalled outside Atlanta. The
Democratic platform declared the war a failure and demanded that immediate
efforts be made to bring the fighting to an end. The delegates nominated George
B. McClellan for president and George H. Pendleton, senator from Ohio, for vice
president. Ten days later, McClellan accepted the nomination but he refused to
support the platform plank that called for peace without the restoration of the
Union, thinking that it was an affront to the troops he had commanded.
M | Election of 1864 |
The election in the North took place
on November 8. As late as August 23, 1864, Lincoln had commented to his Cabinet
that it seemed “exceedingly probable” that he would not be reelected. However,
he had not foreseen the steady succession of Northern victories. Before November
the mood of the people changed. On election day the popular vote was 2,218,388
for Lincoln and 1,812,807 for McClellan. The popular margin was not nearly so
large as that in the electoral college, where Lincoln polled 212 to McClellan’s
21.
There was no 1864 presidential
election in the South. Under the Confederate constitution, the president was
elected for six years, and thus no election was held after 1861.
N | Sherman’s March to the Sea |
One week after the election, Sherman’s
troops, numbering about 60,000 men, marched out of Atlanta toward the east. They
did not know their destination, but following parallel routes, they marched
across Georgia along a 97-km (60-mi) front. Although under strict orders not to
destroy private property, they burned and looted plantations and public
buildings. Slaves by the thousands left their masters and followed the Union
troops to freedom. Neither the Confederacy nor Georgia could offer much
resistance. In his 1864 march across Georgia, Sherman applied the military
concept of war against civilian property. He made a desert of the land through
which he passed, destroying major Confederate sources of supply for Southern
armies. He also brought home the war to the Southern people behind the lines in
the hope that, by breaking their morale, he would weaken the will to fight. In
short, he fulfilled his grim boast: “I can make this march, and make Georgia
howl!”
On December 10 Sherman deployed his
men around Savannah, Georgia. Fort McAllister, the principal defense of the
city, fell on December 13. On December 20 General William J. Hardee, who
commanded the small force that the Confederate government could spare for the
defense of the city, withdrew his men to positions north of the Savannah River.
Two days later, Sherman telegraphed to Lincoln: “I beg to present you as a
Christmas gift the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and
plenty of ammunition, also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton.”
While holding Atlanta, Sherman had
tried time after time to corner the Confederate army that Hood had withdrawn
from that city. Hood kept out of reach. Sherman assumed that when Hood left
Atlanta, he would strike north into Tennessee. To defend the state and prevent
an invasion of the North, Sherman placed Thomas in command of all the troops
left behind on the western front.
O | Nashville |
Thomas concentrated his forces in
Nashville, Tennessee. General John M. Schofield, following the Confederates with
part of the Union troops, clashed with Hood on November 30 in the bloody Battle
of Franklin. Although victorious, Schofield withdrew his troops to Nashville.
Hood followed and took up positions on the high ground south of the city.
Thomas made his plans deliberately, so
deliberately that Grant, impatient at the delay, almost removed him from his
command. On December 15 Thomas struck. The Confederates fought stubbornly but
lost ground. The next day, Thomas renewed the attack. The result was a smashing
Union victory. Hood’s army was so disastrously defeated that it fell apart. Many
of the Confederates drifted back to their homes, the war over so far as they
were concerned.
IX | CIVIL WAR, 1865 |
A | Overview |
The Union moved toward victory during
the first four months of 1865. In mid-January, the capture of Fort Fisher, which
guarded Wilmington, North Carolina, closed the final significant Confederate
port. On the political front, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the 13th
Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery on January 31, and a
last-ditch effort at negotiating an end to the war failed at the Hampton Roads
conference in early February. In February and March, the siege of Petersburg and
Richmond continued, while Sherman’s army worked its way northward through South
Carolina and into North Carolina. Union success at the Battle of Five Forks on
April 1 signaled the end of the long defense of Richmond, after which Lee’s army
retreated westward until forced to surrender at Appomattox Court House on April
9. With Lee’s surrender, the war was clearly drawing to a close. However,
Northern celebrations were quickly silenced when Lincoln was shot on April 14
and died the next day. Large-scale Union raids into Alabama and Northern
successes elsewhere further weakened an already reeling Confederacy, and in late
April Sherman accepted surrender of the South’s last major field army at Durham
Station, North Carolina.
B | Eastern Front |
With Hood no longer a threat, Grant
planned to have Sherman march north and join the Army of the Potomac in a joint
campaign to crush Lee. To clear the way, an expedition was sent against Fort
Fisher at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina. The fort fell on
January 15, 1865. The loss deprived the Confederacy of its last strongpoint
along the Atlantic Coast and tightened the Union blockade. It also sealed the
port of Wilmington, North Carolina, leaving only Galveston, Texas, open to
blockade-runners.
C | Bentonville |
Sherman had expected to start north soon
after January 1, 1865, but bad weather delayed him until February 1. On that
date he moved out with 60,000 men, 2500 wagons, and 600 ambulances. As in the
march through Georgia, his men would live off the country. He could expect some
fighting but no dangerous opposition, for the Confederates had only 25,000
troops in the Carolinas. Sherman fought only one sharp battle in the campaign.
On March 19 at Bentonville, North Carolina, Johnston, restored to command by
Lee, attacked one of the advancing Union columns. Sherman quickly concentrated
his forces, and Johnston retreated. On March 23 Sherman reached Goldsboro, North
Carolina, where he halted.
Yet the campaign through the Carolinas
was not easy. Throughout the campaign the troops fought the weather if not the
enemy. Heavy rains had made the roads soggy, but the guns and wagons came
through with the foot soldiers. In 50 days, 10 of which were devoted to rest,
the troops covered 684 km (425 mi). The march was notable because it proved that
the South stood at the very edge of defeat. It could no longer defend itself
against an invading army.
D | Burning of Columbia |
Sherman’s conduct of the campaign made
his name hated throughout the South and left lasting scars. Troops living off
the resources of an area were a hardship on civilians. In South Carolina,
destruction went far beyond military needs. Northerners believed that the state
had started the war and that its people should be made to pay for their sins.
Many Union officers tried to restrain their men, but pillaging was common, and
the smoking ruins of houses and barns all too often marked the Federals’ path.
Fifteen towns were burned in whole or in part, but no act of destruction
compared with or caused more controversy than the burning of Columbia, the state
capital. Sherman denied that he gave orders to burn the city. The fires in
Columbia were most likely begun both by retreating Confederate forces, who
wanted to deny supplies to the Northern troops, and by invading Federal
soldiers.
E | Sherman Joins Grant |
At the end of March, Sherman left
General Schofield in charge and hurried to Petersburg for a conference with
Grant. On March 27 and 28, the two met with Lincoln and Admiral Porter to make
plans for the final campaign. At this time, Lincoln made his policy clear: He
wanted the war brought to an end with no more bloodshed than necessary, and he
had no desire to take harsh measures against the Confederates after they had
laid down their arms. Grant warned the president that Lee could not be expected
to surrender without a last-ditch effort.
F | Fall of Richmond |
Grant planned to extend his lines
westward around Petersburg and Richmond to cut the two railroads that still
supplied the hemmed-in Confederates. On March 29 the federal commander started
his columns. Lee moved troops to counter the threat. On April 1 at Five Forks,
24 km (15 mi) west of Petersburg, Sheridan defeated a Confederate force led by
Pickett, capturing much artillery and many prisoners. Fearful of being
completely encircled, Lee sent three brigades to Pickett’s support and decided
to evacuate Richmond. Learning that Lee had weakened his defenses, Grant ordered
a general assault on April 2. The defenders resisted staunchly, giving Lee time
to make an orderly withdrawal. Federal troops entered the abandoned city the
next day.
G | Appomattox Court House |
By taking his army out of Richmond and
Petersburg, Lee hoped to join Johnston who had been in North Carolina, and at
least to prolong the struggle. Grant’s goal was clear: to prevent the two armies
from uniting. From April 3 to April 7, Union and Confederate forces engaged in a
series of running fights. On April 7 Sheridan managed to place his brigades
across the line of Lee’s retreat at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, 96 km (60
mi) west of Petersburg. Mindful of Lincoln’s wish to avoid needless bloodshed,
Grant sent Lee a note pointing out his hopeless condition and inviting
surrender. Lee, who was keenly aware of his desperate situation, asked for
terms. On the morning of April 9 the two commanders met at a private home in
Appomattox Court House. Grant asked only that the officers and men of the Army
of Northern Virginia surrender and give their word not to take up arms against
the United States until properly exchanged. Lee accepted the terms. The war was
over in Virginia.
X | THE WAR ENDS |
President Lincoln lived to learn of Lee’s
surrender and to rejoice that the war was almost at an end. A few days later, on
April 14, he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a crazed actor and defender
of the Confederacy. The North, overwhelmed with grief, was not disposed to be
generous to the conquered Confederacy.
Meanwhile, news of Lee’s surrender slowly
made its way to Johnston and Sherman in North Carolina. Johnston made peace
overtures to Sherman, and on April 17 the two commanders met in Durham Station,
North Carolina, to discuss terms. Sherman thought he was carrying out Lincoln’s
wish to heal the wounds of war by offering more generous terms than Grant had
offered Lee. However, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, embittered by Lincoln’s
murder, which he suspected had been inspired by the Confederate government,
refused to approve the terms. On April 26 Johnston had to surrender his 37,000
men on the same conditions as those agreed on by Lee when he surrendered to
Grant at Appomattox Court House.
Only two sizable Confederate armies
remained. One was in Louisiana, led by General Richard Taylor. The other,
commanded by General Edmund Kirby Smith, was in Texas. Taylor surrendered on May
4, and Smith surrendered on May 26, both of them to General E. R. S. Canby. On
May 10 Jefferson Davis was captured in Georgia.
XI | ASSESSMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR |
Looking backward, anyone must marvel at
the fact that the war lasted four years. All the advantages seemed to favor the
North. In 1860 the 22 states that would remain in the Union (three more would
come in before 1865) had a combined population of 22 million. The 11 states that
made up the Confederacy could count only 9 million inhabitants, including almost
4 million black slaves. Most of the factories capable of producing war materials
were located in the North, and the section was well equipped with railroads. It
had a merchant marine and could maintain worldwide commerce. The South, on the
other hand, was a region of farms. Although these farms produced products that
Europe wanted, particularly cotton, the South had few ships, and its principal
ports were soon closed.
Much has been made of the superiority of
Southern commanders. Although Lee was more than a match for every opponent
except Grant, Grant overcame the Confederate general by force of numbers and
determination of will. Neither side had another corps commander equal to
Stonewall Jackson, but Jackson was killed before the war was half over. In the
West, the Union commanders clearly outmatched their opposites. No Confederate
leader could stand comparison with Grant, Sherman, or Thomas. In naval
operations, Foote, Farragut, and Porter had no Confederate rivals.
Little distinction can be made between
Northern and Southern morale. Desertion was common on both sides. The North had
its Copperheads, its bounty jumpers, and its draft rioters, and millions of
Northerners were weary of the war long before its end. In the South, draft
dodging and tax evasion were common, and fortunes were made by profiteers who
preferred to run luxuries, instead of war supplies, through the blockade.
The South had two important advantages.
First, it did not need to conquer the North. It could win the war simply by
defending its soil and by waiting for the North to become so discouraged by
repeated failures that it would grant independence. Second, the South could
operate with shorter interior lines, thus making better use of its fewer
men.
In the long run, Northern superiority in
supplies and men was decisive. That Southern armies remained in the field and
took a toll from their opponents until the spring of 1865 is a remarkable
achievement in determination and fortitude. Lincoln’s position on slavery and
democracy was equally important in the outcome of the war. The Emancipation
Proclamation put an end to Southern hopes of foreign intervention. In the North
the majority of the people remained firmly resolved that the Union must be
restored.
A | Costs of the War |
A1 | Human |
The human cost of the war far exceeded
what anyone had imagined in 1861. The North placed roughly 2.2 million men in
uniform (180,000 of them blacks), of whom about 640,000 were killed, wounded in
battle, or died of disease. Of the 360,000 Northern soldiers who died,
two-thirds perished from illnesses such as dysentery, diarrhea, measles,
malaria, and typhoid. Casualties in Confederate forces are more difficult to
estimate, but they probably approached 450,000 out of approximately 750,000 to
850,000 Confederate soldiers. Of these, it is estimated that more than 250,000
died. The proportion of battlefield deaths to deaths by disease was probably the
same as in the Northern armies. Total deaths thus exceeded 600,000, and the dead
and wounded combined totaled about 1.1 million. More Americans were killed in
the Civil War than in all other American wars combined from the colonial period
through the war in Afghanistan in 2001.
Human suffering also extended beyond
the military sphere and continued long after fighting ceased. During the
conflict, thousands of black and white Southerners became refugees, losing many
of their possessions and facing an uncertain future in strange surroundings. Far
fewer Northern civilians experienced the war so directly, although the citizens
of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, saw their town burned by Confederate cavalry in
1864. An unknown number of civilians perished at the hands of guerrillas,
deserters, and, less frequently, regular soldiers in both armies. After the war,
many thousands of veterans struggled to cope with lost limbs and other wounds.
Thousands of families faced difficult financial circumstances due to the death
of husbands and fathers. The United States government made available small
pensions for disabled veterans and widows of soldiers, and southern states did
the same for former Confederate soldiers and their widows. In neither instance,
however, were the funds sufficient to provide for all the needs of a
family.
A2 | Economic |
The war generated spending on a scale
dwarfing that of any earlier period in American history. In 1860, the federal
budget was $63 million; in 1865, federal government expenditures totaled nearly
$1.3 billion—a 20-fold increase that did not include the money spent by the
Confederate government. An estimate in 1879 placed war-related costs to that
date for the United States at $6.1 billion, including pension payments that
would continue for many years. Figures for the Confederacy are very unreliable,
but one estimate places expenditures through 1863 at $2 billion. After 1863,
records for Confederate expenditures are not available. Whatever the total
figure, there is no doubt that expenditures and indebtedness grew to a size that
were not imaginable before the war.
The war also caused wide-scale
economic destruction to the South. The Confederate states lost two-thirds of
their wealth during the war. The loss of slave property through emancipation
accounted for much of this, but the economic infrastructure in the South was
also severely damaged in other ways. Railroads and industries in the South were
in shambles, more than one-half of all farm machinery was destroyed, and 40
percent of all livestock had been killed. In contrast, the Northern economy
thrived during the war. Two numbers convey a sense of the economic cost to the
respective sections: between 1860 and 1870, Northern wealth increased by 50
percent; during that same decade, Southern wealth decreased by 60 percent.
B | Effects of the War |
B1 | Soldiers |
The Civil War was the central event in
the lives of most of the men who served in the armed forces. Many of them had
never traveled more than a few miles beyond their homes, and the war took them
to places they otherwise would not have seen, made them participants in great
events, and often left them with scars that constantly reminded them of how much
they had sacrificed. During the postwar years, thousands of men joined veterans’
organizations such as the Grand Army of the Republic in the North and the United
Confederate Veterans in the South. They revisited the sites of their battles,
raised monuments to commemorate their service, and, in large numbers, wrote
reminiscences about their part in the war. For black men who fought for the
Union, the war provided the strongest possible claim for full citizenship. They
had risked their lives, along with their white comrades in the military, and
they argued that they should have the right to vote and otherwise live as full
members of American society.
B2 | Civilians |
The war touched the lives of almost
every person in the United States. Women assumed larger responsibilities in the
workplace because so many men were absent in the armies. In the North, they
labored as nurses (previously a male occupation), government clerks, and factory
workers and contributed to the war effort in other ways. Southern white women
also worked as clerks and nurses and in factories, and thousands took
responsibility for running family farms. Several hundred women disguised
themselves as men and served in the military, a few of whom were wounded in
battle. Although the war opened opportunities for work outside the household,
its end brought a general return to old patterns of employment. Still, the war
remained a major event in the lives of women as it did for the men in
uniform.
Slave men and women in the South
shouldered a major part of the labor burden, as they always had, and made it
possible for the Confederacy to put nearly 80 percent of its military-age white
men in uniform, a level of mobilization unequaled in American history. No group
was more directly affected by the outcome of the war than the almost 4 million
black people who were slaves in 1861. They emerged from the conflict with their
freedom, which was confirmed by the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in
December 1865. However, blacks did not have equal rights until long after the
war.
The war also touched children in
profound ways. Fathers and brothers left home to fight, and thousands of boys 17
years old or younger entered military service as drummers, musicians, or
soldiers in the ranks. Children behind the lines followed the progress of the
war, pretending to be soldiers or nurses. All too often, they were affected by
the loss of parents or siblings. Many grew to adulthood with a sense that
whatever they might face in life, it would be less important than the great
national crisis in which their fathers fought.
B3 | Long-Term Effects of the War |
The war was followed by twelve years
of Reconstruction, during which the North and South debated the future of black
Americans and waged bitter political battles. In 1877, the white South tacitly
conceded national power to the Republican Party in return for the right to rule
their own states with minimal interference from the North. Republican domination
of presidential politics and a solidly Democratic white South were two legacies
of the war and Reconstruction. Despite ratification of the 14th and 15th
Amendments to the Constitution, black Americans failed to win equal rights
during the acrimonious postwar political debates. As the 19th century closed,
they faced a rigidly segregated life in the South and hostility across most of
the North.
Despite the destruction, the war did
settle the question of secession. Since 1861 no state has seriously considered
withdrawing from the Union. In addition, the war brought slavery to an end.
After the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation, there was widespread
acceptance of the fact that Union victory would mean general emancipation. Since
the proclamation was a war measure that might be held unconstitutional after the
war, the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished slavery, was passed
by both houses of Congress early in 1865. It was ratified by three-fourths of
the states and was formally proclaimed in effect on December 18, 1865.
The war also set the South back at
least a generation in industry and agriculture. Factories and farms were
devastated by the invading armies. The labor system fell into chaos. Not until
the 20th century did the South recover fully from the economic effects of the
war. In contrast, the North forged ahead with the building of a modern
industrial state.
In conclusion, it must be remarked
that the Civil War did not raise blacks to a position of equality with whites.
Nor did the war bring about that emotional reunion that Lincoln hoped for when
he spoke in his first inaugural address of “the bonds of affection” that had
formerly held the two sections together.
No comments:
Post a Comment