I | INTRODUCTION |
Alaska, northernmost and westernmost state of the
United States, and the largest state of the Union. It occupies the extreme
northwestern region of the North American continent and is separated from Asia
by the 82-km- (51-mi-) wide Bering Strait. Alaska has belonged to the United
States since 1867, when it was bought from Russia by Secretary of State William
H. Seward. The United States paid Russia $7.2 million for the rights of the
Russian American Company in Alaska.
By 1900 Alaska had become a land of golden
opportunity as one gold discovery followed another and prospectors arrived by
the tens of thousands. Although the gold rush was over within a few years, many
people settled in Alaska, and fishing developed as an important industry.
Alaska’s strategic importance became apparent during World War II (1939-1945)
with the Japanese attack on Dutch Harbor and occupation of Atta and Kiska and
with the American desire to send military aid, particularly aircraft, through
Alaska to Russia. During the 1940s and 1950s, the large influx of immigrants
helped to give renewed impetus to its movement for statehood. On January 3,
1959, Alaska was admitted to the Union as the 49th state.
Alaska is a rugged, wild, beautiful land of
majestic mountains and deep, high-walled fjords; of slow-moving glaciers and
still-active volcanoes; of dense, coniferous forests and desolate, treeless
islands; of hot springs and icy streams. It is a land of contrasts, with
extremes of wind and sun, snow and rain, heat and cold.
Alaska is a land that has undergone tremendous
change. Since becoming a United States territory in 1912, it has significantly
developed its mineral, fishery, forest, and petroleum resources. The state now
has a stable and self-sufficient economy based on its rich and varied natural
resources—above all, oil and natural gas. Today’s Alaska is a composite of old
and new, with fur trappers, traditional sea mammal hunters, and dog teams living
in a state with modern cities connected to the world by all the modern means of
communication.
The name Alaska is probably derived
from an Aleut word meaning “great land,” which originally referred to the Alaska
Peninsula. Alaska is called the Last Frontier, because of its opportunities and
many lightly settled regions, and the Land of the Midnight Sun, because the sun
shines nearly around the clock during Alaskan summers. Anchorage is Alaska’s
largest city, and Juneau is the state capital.
II | PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY |
Alaska occupies the northwestern portion of
North America. It includes the Aleutian Islands, a chain of about 150 islands
that arcs westward across the Pacific Ocean for 1,800 km (1,100 mi).
Alaska has a total area of 1,717,854 sq km
(663,267 sq mi), including 44,659 sq km (17,243 sq mi) of inland water and
70,057 sq km (27,049 sq mi) of coastal water over which the state has
jurisdiction. Alaska has more area of lakes and rivers than any other state,
equaling more than the entire land area of Massachusetts and Vermont combined.
The state’s extreme dimensions are about 2,240 km (about 1,390 mi) from north to
south and about 3,550 km (about 2,210 mi) from east to west. The mean elevation
is about 580 m (1,900 ft). A large area, north of an imaginary line from the
Seward Peninsula through Fort Yukon to the Canadian border, lies within the
Arctic Circle. Alaska’s Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait is 4 km (2.5
mi) east of Big Diomede Island, or Ratmanov Island, which belongs to Russia
(see Diomede Islands). Fairbanks, in the center of the state, is 5,280 km
(3,280 mi) by air from New York City, 5,670 km (3,520 mi) from Tokyo, and 6,810
km (4,230 mi) from London. This key position, at the northern end of the Pacific
Ocean and close to Asia, is a major factor in Alaska’s continued economic
importance.
A | Natural Regions |
Alaska can be divided into three major
natural regions: the Coast Ranges region, the Interior region, and the Arctic
region.
The Coast Ranges region is an area of high
mountains, great valleys, and many islands. It extends about 1,900 km (about
1,200 mi) along Alaska’s Pacific coast and is generally narrower than about 300
km (about 200 mi). It can be divided, in turn, into the subregions of
southeastern Alaska, south central Alaska, and southwestern Alaska.
Southeastern Alaska, often called the
Alaska Panhandle, or Panhandle, is a narrow, mountainous strip of the mainland
between British Columbia and the Pacific Ocean. It is fringed by the Alexander
Archipelago, a group of 1,100 islands. Between the islands and the mainland is
part of the Inside Passage, a deep natural waterway used by vessels traveling
along the coast. The islands of the archipelago are the tops of submerged
mountains, whose peaks rise steeply about 900 to 1,500 m (about 3,000 to 5,000
ft) above the water. On the mainland the Boundary Range rises abruptly from the
water’s edge, and varies in elevation from 1,500 to more than 3,000 m (5,000 to
more than 10,000 ft).
In the northern section of the Alaska
Panhandle and in adjoining areas of Canada are the Saint Elias Mountains, which
reach 5,489 m (18,008 ft) above sea level at Mount Saint Elias, one of the
highest peaks in North America.
The fjords along the coast are deep,
narrow inlets that have been gouged out by glaciers and then partly submerged by
the sea. Glaciers in Alaska number more than 100,000. Vast glaciers occur in the
mountains northwest of Juneau. At Glacier Bay the huge Muir Glacier towers 60 m
(200 ft) above the water. At the foot of Mount Saint Elias is the Malaspina
Glacier, which covers an area larger than Rhode Island. The Malaspina Glacier is
the largest piedmont glacier in North America. A piedmont glacier occurs at the
foot of a mountain range and consists of a large number of valley glaciers that
coalesce. Just north of the Saint Elias Mountains are the volcanic Wrangell
Mountains, which include Mount Wrangell, Mount Sanford, and Mount Drum.
South central Alaska extends around the
Gulf of Alaska from the Malaspina Glacier to the Alaska Peninsula. It is bounded
on the north and west by the Alaska Range, a belt of mountains 80 to 100 km (50
to 60 mi) wide that is connected with the Saint Elias Mountains on the east. The
Alaska Range includes Mount McKinley, whose south peak is the highest point in
North America at 6,194 m (20,320 ft). The coastal section of south central
Alaska resembles that of the Panhandle. North of Cook Inlet, broad river flats
lead inland to the Susitna and the Matanuska river valleys, which comprise the
only extensive lowland area in the Pacific Mountains region.
Southwestern Alaska is composed of the
narrow Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutian Islands, and Kodiak Island. The backbone
of the peninsula is the volcanic, heavily glaciated Aleutian Range, which
continues through the Aleutian Islands to the Kamchatka Peninsula. With more
than 50 active volcanoes, the Aleutians are the site of frequent eruptions,
including in recent years Mount Veniaminov and Mount Augustine in lower Cook
Inlet. From time to time major eruptions shake the area. Novarupta Volcano and
Katmai Volcano, at the base of the Alaska Peninsula, erupted in 1912 and created
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. The Aleutian Islands, or Aleutians, are an
extension of the Aleutian Range and divide the Bering Sea from the Pacific
Ocean. Cape Wrangell, in the Aleutians, is the westernmost point in the United
States. Kodiak Island is the second largest island in the United States. The
Pribilof Islands, also part of Alaska, lie in the Bering Sea northeast of the
Aleutian Islands.
The Alaskan Interior is bounded by the
Alaska Range on the south, the Brooks Range on the north, the border with the
Yukon Territory on the east, and the Bering Sea on the west. It contains the
Tanana Yukon Upland, with maximum elevations in the east of about 1,200 m (about
4,000 ft) and separating the lowlands or flats of the Yukon and Tanana rivers,
and ends at the vast lowland between the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. The
Yukon Flats, northeast of Fairbanks, form a large depression surrounded by
highlands and have the coldest winter and hottest summer temperatures in Alaska.
Once the Kuskokwim River passes through the Kuskokwim Mountains, it forms the
southern edge of a vast lake-studded alluvial plain bounded on the north by the
Yukon River. This water-logged lowland is a major summer nesting area for birds.
Fairbanks is the major city in this region, while Fort Yukon is the major
community in the Yukon Flats and Bethel the largest settlement on the Lower
Kuskokwim River.
The glaciated Brooks Range separates
Interior from Arctic Alaska. Its highest elevations are in the east near the
border with the Yukon Territory, and it extends almost to the Chukchi Sea in the
west. The western Brooks Range consist of two ranges, the Baird and DeLong
Mountains, and is drained by the Noatak River. The Dalton Highway, connecting
Fairbanks with Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Ocean, crosses the Brooks Range at
Atigun Pass.
The Arctic Region is bounded by the
Beaufort Sea to the north, the Chukchi Sea to the west, and the crest of the
Brooks Range to the south. It is crossed by numerous northward-flowing rivers,
the largest of which is the Colville. The region has never been subject to
glaciation; contains continuous permafrost; enormous deposits of coal,
petroleum, and natural gas; and is the summer calving grounds for hundreds of
thousands of caribou and nesting grounds for migratory birds. It consists of the
northern slopes and low foothills of the Brooks Range and a large Arctic coastal
plain, popularly called the Arctic Slope or simply the Slope (see North
Slope). The eastern portion of the plain is narrow, extending only 19 km (12 mi)
from the mountains to the sea at Demarcation Point, marking the boundary with
the Yukon Territory, but reaches a width nearly ten times as great at Point
Barrow, the northernmost point in the United States. The region’s principal
settlement, Barrow, is near the point. The region contains at Prudhoe Bay the
largest single source of petroleum in the United States. The area east of the
Colville River is encompassed by the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), the
area to the west by the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. Small deposits of
petroleum and natural gas, as well as huge deposits of coal, are known to be in
the National Petroleum Reserve, but the largest petroleum deposits are believed
to exist in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
B | Rivers and Lakes |
The principal river is the Yukon River,
which rises in the nearby Yukon Territory. About two-thirds of its 3,190 km
(1,980 mi) course lies in Alaska. The Yukon is one of the longest navigable
rivers in the world, and it flows westward in a gently curving arc across the
Interior region to the Bering Sea just south of Norton Sound. Shallow-draft
riverboats and barges can navigate its whole length during the ice-free summer
weeks. Its main tributaries include the Porcupine, the Tanana, the Koyukuk, and
the Innoko rivers. The silt laden, glacially fed Yukon forms a large delta with
numerous shallow channels, or distributaries.
The second great river of Alaska is the
Kuskokwim, 1,165 km (724 mi) long. Its four headstreams rise in the Alaska
Range. The river winds southwestward to the Bering Sea. Near the end of its
course the river approaches the Yukon, and shallow channels link the two river
systems.
The Colville River flows into the Beaufort
Sea; the Noatak, Kobuk, and Selawik rivers reach the sea near Kotzebue. The main
route connecting Anchorage to Fairbanks, over Broad Pass, follows the Susitna
and Chulitna rivers. The Copper River forms a huge delta, and provides access to
the Interior from Glenallen. Cordova was at one time the port for the Copper and
Chitina rivers. Wrangell remains the port for the Stikine River. The Alsek River
is unusual in that it does not form an easily visible mouth or delta.
Alaska’s largest lake is Iliamna Lake at
the foot of the Alaska Peninsula, covering 2,647 sq km (1,022 sq mi).
C | Coastline |
Measured roughly along its perimeter,
Alaska’s coastline is 10,690 km (6,640 mi) long. However, if all the inlets and
islands are taken into account, the total length is 54,563 km (33,904 mi). Along
the Pacific coast, the shoreline is deeply indented. The Inside Passage,
sheltered from the open ocean, is a calm body of water, but it is difficult to
navigate in foggy weather. The coast of the Gulf of Alaska has tides that reach
as high as 6 m (20 ft). It is buffeted by major storms, and occasionally by
tsunamis caused by earthquakes under the ocean. At Cook Inlet high tide and low
tide sometimes differ as much as 9 m (30 ft).
The current through the Gulf of Alaska is
known as the Alaska Current. It flows westward and then, in the eastern
Aleutians, turns northward to bring warm water along the western coast of Alaska
all the way to Point Barrow. The coastline of the Bering Sea, except for part of
the southern Seward Peninsula, is mostly shallow, with offshore bars and
lagoons. Most of the coast of the Chukchi and Beaufort seas is similar. The
Bering Sea contains ice during the winter, and the marginal region of the ice is
one of the world’s major fisheries. In summer the ice slowly retreats northward
into the Arctic Ocean, allowing navigation along the Arctic Coast by late
summer.
D | Climate |
Alaska has four different climatic zones:
maritime, continental, transitional, and Arctic. Kodiak, the Aleutians, and
southeastern and south central Alaska have a climate primarily influenced by the
sea, so that temperatures do not vary greatly throughout the year, but rainfall
is quite high and frequent. Western Alaska, a transitional climate, has much
lower temperatures and less rainfall, but, like the Aleutians, frequent periods
of extremely high winds and blowing snow. Arctic Alaska has very little
snowfall, cool summer temperatures, and frequent high winds, particularly from
the east. The interior has a continental climate characterized by extremely
great temperature variations, but only moderate rain and snow.
The average January temperatures in
southeastern Alaska are close to freezing, but snowfall in many areas can be
high. Rainfall, particularly along the coasts, can exceed 2,500 mm (100 in) a
year. South central Alaska has a maritime climate, ranging northward into a
transitional climate. The climates of Homer and Kodiak are more similar to
southeastern Alaska’s climate than to that of Anchorage. Because of the oceans
and the mountains, and the storms coming from the Gulf of Alaska, this region
shows considerable variation from place to place in rainfall and snowfall. For
example, Thompson Pass, north of Valdez, has recorded more than 6 m (20 ft) of
snowfall in one winter, whereas Anchorage often has little snow all winter long.
Under proper conditions, however, cold air from the interior can cross the
mountains and bring temperatures in the upper -20°s C (lower -20°s F) to this
region.
The Aleutians, dominated by perpetual low
pressure systems and contrasting ocean currents, have frequent fogs, high winds
or “williwaws,” and rainstorms, making the region extremely difficult for both
vessel and aircraft transportation. The interior has a continental (also called
sub-Arctic or taiga) climate caused by being in the rain shadow of the coast
ranges and inland. Winter cold spells can last several weeks, with temperatures
recorded in the -50°s C (-60°s F), while summer temperatures, particularly in
the Yukon Flats, can reach into the upper 30°s C (upper 90°s F). Summers are
characterized by frequent thunderstorms, which often cause forest fires. Mean
annual precipitation is about 380 to 510 mm (about 15 to 20 in), with winter
snowfalls varying significantly from year to year but averaging in lowland areas
at about 1,300 mm (about 50 in).
Western Alaska, from the Alaska Peninsula
northward to the southern Seward Peninsula, has a transitional climate, one
influenced by frequent low pressure systems from the Bering Sea, but also by
cold air from the interior and winter sea ice conditions. The result is summer
temperatures that seldom rise much above 10°C (50°F), and winter conditions
characterized by high winds and snow storms. Arctic Alaska, stretching from the
northern Seward Peninsula (Kotzebue Sound) northward to Barrow and eastward to
Demarcation Point, has an Arctic climate characterized by low winter and summer
temperatures and frequent high winds. While snowfall is low, generally less than
300 mm (12 in), blowing snow frequently creates a condition known as
whiteout, in which people cannot differentiate between land and sky,
making it extremely easy to become disoriented and lost. Summers are cool, with
temperatures generally less than 10°C (50°F) and rainfall tends to concentrate
in late summer. The high winds along the coast of the Beaufort Sea blow away
insects and make the area favorable to caribou in the summer months.
Because of Alaska’s high northern
latitude, the length of day varies much more between summer and winter than it
does in other parts of the United States. At Fort Yukon, on the Arctic Circle,
the sun barely rises above the southern horizon on the shortest day of the year,
December 21. At Barrow, on the Arctic Coast, the sun is not seen from late
November until late January. In summer the days are much longer and Alaska is as
much “the land of the midnight sun” as are Norway and Sweden. At Barrow there is
continuous daylight from early May to early August.
E | Soils |
Most Alaska soils are immature, cold, and
acidic. Except for the lowlands of southeastern and south central Alaska, and
portions of the lowlands in the Interior, most Alaska soils are permanently
frozen, a condition called permafrost. At a certain depth in the ground, the
soil remains perpetually frozen. This level is known as the permafrost table and
the ground beneath is known as the inactive layer because it never thaws. The
soil above, however, freezes and thaws every year, and in the process the soil
is constantly churned. The permafrost table is impervious to water. Therefore
the surface in much of the Interior, western, and Arctic Alaska is waterlogged
and contains numerous but usually shallow lakes often called thaw lakes, in
spite of the region’s low precipitation. Thaw lakes form when large blocks of
ground ice contained in the inactive layer thaw and leave a hole in the surface,
which fills with water. On the Arctic coastal plain these lakes are generally
rectangular in shape, whereas in the Interior and western Alaska they are
usually oval in form. Such lakes fill in with vegetation over time, and in the
Interior eventually with trees. Thus the lakes are not permanent, but are
constantly changing, with new lakes forming and others being filled in with
vegetation. About 80 percent of Alaska contains permanently frozen ground. Of
this, over half is called continuous permafrost, that is, has an active layer of
only a few inches to a foot or so in depth. The remainder is called
discontinuous permafrost, where the active layer may be many feet in depth.
F | Plant Life |
Forests cover 34 percent of Alaska’s land
area. The most important commercial species of trees are birch, Sitka spruce
(the state tree), western hemlock, black spruce, and white spruce.
The Alaska Panhandle is a land of forests.
The mild climate and heavy rainfall promote dense tree growth. The huge Tongass
National Forest is an area where young saplings compete for space with trees
that are centuries old. Trees found there include the western hemlock, Sitka
spruce, canoe cedar, and yellow cedar (also called Alaska cedar), which are all
conifers. The forest floor is carpeted with berry-producing plants and
moss.
South central Alaska south of the Alaska
Range is also heavily forested, but the trees are usually smaller and there is a
transition from Sitka spruce to white and black spruce. The largest stand of
timber is in the Chugach National Forest.
Southwestern Alaska is almost entirely
treeless, except for Sitka spruce and some cottonwood on Kodiak Island and a few
stunted birches and willows found in the Aleutian Islands. However, grasses grow
luxuriantly in the cool wet climate. Flowers bloom in great variety and include
the forget-me-not (the state flower), anemone, lupine, paintbrush, and marsh
marigold in boggy areas, and the dwarf rhododendron on the hillsides.
In the Interior region, vegetation must
adapt itself to short, warm summers and long, cold winters. Trees grow slowly,
and their root systems must be shallow because they cannot penetrate the
permafrost. Toward the west the trees become sparse and are replaced by wet
tundra. Similarly, the mountain slopes contain tundra in the Interior. Cleared
areas are often brilliant with fireweed in the summer months. Principal trees
found in this region are black and white spruce, paper birch, tamarack, aspen,
Alaskan larch, and balsam poplar. There are expanses of bogs called muskeg, and
grasslands, where many species of wild flowers, berries, and shrubs occur.
Arctic Alaska contains primarily tundra
vegetation with tall brush and some forests in stream valleys. Tundra consists
of mosses, lichens, and grasses 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) high, sedges and heather
up to 20 cm (8 in) high, and willows taller than an average adult person. Tundra
is characteristic of the northlands around the Arctic Ocean and of other areas
in Alaska above the timberline. Colorful flowers carpet the tundra during the
brief summer weeks when the sun never sets, and plants grow well although the
soil thaws less than 30 cm (1 ft) before the long winter returns. Here and
there, dwarf willows are found.
G | Animal Life |
In southeastern Alaska are found the black
bear, grizzly bear, black-tailed deer, moose, mountain goat, marten, red fox,
mink, wolf, coyote, otter, and beaver. The sea lion, harbor seal, sea otter,
porpoise, and several species of whale are common along the coast. Halibut,
herring, cod, crab, and shrimp are also found in abundance in coastal waters.
Several species of anadromous (living in both salt and freshwater) fish occur in
Alaska, including chinook, coho, sockeye, chum, and pink salmon, Dolly Varden,
sheefish, and rainbow and cutthroat trout. Brook and lake trout, Arctic
grayling, northern pike, whitefish, and burbot occur in the state’s lakes and
streams. Wildlife in south-central Alaska is similar to that of the Panhandle,
with the addition of Dall sheep and caribou. In southwestern Alaska is rugged
Kodiak Island, the home of the Kodiak brown bear, which is believed to be the
largest omnivorous land animal in the world.
The Dall sheep, grizzly bear, moose,
wolf, and caribou are found in Denali National Park and Preserve. Gulls,
kittiwakes, cormorants, murres, puffins, and other seabirds are found throughout
the Aleutian Islands. On the Pribilof Islands are extensive fur seal rookeries
and also small colonies of sea otter.
The Interior region is the home of
caribou, moose, Dall sheep, mountain goat, bison, wolf, black bear, grizzly
bear, and many fur-bearing animals. Thousands of migratory waterfowl arrive at
the end of April at their nesting grounds along the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim
river valleys and leave in August and September for warmer lands farther south.
The Bristol Bay area of the Bering Sea coast is noted for its salmon.
In the Arctic region the sea ice is the
habitat of the polar bear, hair seal, and walrus. Marine life is abundant and
ranges from tiny crustaceans to giant whales. Caribou graze on the tundra,
migrating in herds and returning for the winter to range south of the Brook
Range. The Arctic is a major nesting area for waterfowl, shorebirds, and many
raptors, including peregrine falcons.
H | Conservation |
Alaska’s Department of Environmental
Conservation is responsible for the conservation, protection, and improvement of
the state’s natural resources and environment and for the control of water,
land, and air pollution.
H1 | Air Quality |
While air quality in Alaska is generally
good, the state has a few air pollution problems. A leading problem is high
levels of carbon monoxide in urban areas during winter. During temperature
inversions in winter, which trap pollutants near the ground, air quality in
Fairbanks and Anchorage occasionally fails to meet federal standards.
Automobiles, and in Fairbanks coal-fired power plants and home heating,
contribute to air pollution. Toxic air emissions, especially ammonia and
benzene, are largely confined to areas near oil refineries.
H2 | Waste Management |
Landfills designed with modern
environmental safeguards have been opened in Alaska, although much of the
state’s solid waste is disposed of in older facilities. Open dumps are the
primary disposal facilities in rural Alaska. In 2006 the state had 6 hazardous
waste sites on a federal priority list for cleanup because of their severity or
proximity to people. Progress was being made in efforts to reduce pollution; in
the period 1995–2000 the amount of toxic chemicals discharged into the
environment was reduced by 71 percent.
H3 | Water Quality |
Virtually all of the state’s waters are
unpolluted. Nevertheless, many in Alaska drink water from systems that violate
federal safe drinking water standards. Most of the drinking water problems stem
from inadequate public sewerage, especially in rural areas. Water quality has
also suffered because of oil spills and poor petroleum waste disposal practices.
In March 1989 the supertanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound
and discharged about 260,000 barrels, one of the worst oil spills in U.S.
history. The environmental and ecological damage caused by the spill may take
decades to undo.
III | ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES |
Fur seal, sea otter, and beaver pelts were
the basis of economic activity in Alaska for more than 150 years after 1741. The
first Americans arriving in Alaska after 1867 entered into the fur trade,
established a small steamboat trading system along the Yukon River from its
mouth to Fort Reliance, near present-day Dawson, and began exploration for gold.
By the late 1870s Alaska was recognized as a significant source of canned
salmon, and in the 1880s and 1890s major gold deposits were discovered along the
south bank of the Yukon and in what became the city of Juneau.
The major gold rushes began in the late
1890s after the 1896 discovery of gold in the Klondike in the Yukon Territory,
and continued through the next two decades. To produce food to support mining
operations, farming began in the Fairbanks area, Glenallen, and elsewhere in the
early part of the 20th century, while fish canneries became very significant in
the years from 1900 to 1920. Other minerals, particularly copper, tin, mercury,
and silver, were also mined in very large quantities.
During the 1940s and 1950s large military
bases were built throughout Alaska. The construction industry developed rapidly
during and after World War II and manufacturing began to develop in the
1960s.
Beginning in the late 1970s, the economy
of Alaska underwent a fundamental, and rapid, change as the state’s enormous oil
deposits, discovered in the 1960s, were exploited. Crude oil was first shipped
from Valdez in 1977. By 1980 state government revenue from the oil industry had
grown to the point where the state government abolished its personal income
tax.
Alaska had a work force of 347,000 people
in 2006, of which 36 percent worked in the diverse service sector, including
jobs such as working in restaurants or data processing. Federal, state, or local
government, including the military, employed another 26 percent of the work
force; 17 percent worked in wholesale or retail trade; 20 percent in
transportation or public utilities; 12 percent in finance, insurance, or real
estate; 5 percent) in construction; 4 percent in manufacturing; 1 percent in
farming (including agricultural services), forestry, or fishing; and 4 percent
in mining. In 2005, 23 percent of the workers in Alaska were unionized.
A | Agriculture |
Livestock has been raised in Alaska
since the 1850s, when the Russians introduced cows to provide fresh milk at
their missions on Kodiak Island and on the Pribilof Islands. Gardens were
cultivated and greenhouse vegetables were raised in gold rush days at Fort
Yukon, Eagle, and Unalakleet and at points far north of the Arctic Circle.
Cattle were driven inland from the coast to the goldfields, to be fattened on
summer grasses before slaughtering. Commercial agriculture became quite
significant in the Fairbanks area in the early part of the 20th century with the
development of dairy and potato farms. The United States government sponsored
the development of agriculture, particularly dairying and potato and vegetable
farming, in the Matanuska Valley in the 1930s. Commercial agriculture today
plays a significant role in the Matanuska Valley, Alaska’s leading agricultural
area, and in the Delta region. The Delta is a significant producer of milk and
milk products as well as potatoes, grass seeds for lawns and animal fodder, and
barley. Cattle are raised on Kodiak Island, and a facility in Palmer processes
pigs and some cattle from the Delta and Matanuska Valley.
In 2005 there were just 640 farms in
Alaska. Some 48 percent of them had annual sales of more than $10,000; many of
the rest were sidelines for operators who also held other jobs. Farmland
occupies 364,217 hectares (900,000 acres), of which 11 percent is cropland.
Most of Alaska’s arable land is in the
inland river valleys, where the rainfall is light and the winters are long and
cold. The grazing season for cattle is only about 100 days, and eight to nine
months of indoor feeding are necessary. Similarly, the growing season for crops
lasts only about 90 to 100 days throughout much of the Interior region, although
this is offset by the long hours of continuous sunlight. During this growing
season, cabbage, cauliflower, and many root vegetables grow to mammoth sizes.
Hardy strains of barley, potatoes, and other crops have been developed, and the
seeds of these grains have been tried with much success in other parts of the
United States with long, rigorous winters.
A1 | Patterns of Farming |
Farming in Alaska is generally
confined to the Matanuska and Tanana river valleys, to part of the Kenai
Peninsula, and to the area around Fairbanks. Greenhouse and nursery products are
Alaska’s chief farm commodity, by value. Other commodities include milk and
cream, potatoes, crops used for silage, hay, cattle and calves, barley, eggs,
vegetables, and hogs.
The Matanuska Valley is an extensive,
well-drained area of moderately fertile soils, lying at the head of Cook Inlet,
near Palmer. The Alaska Railroad commenced agricultural development in the
Matanuska in 1928, and in 1935 the federal government established a colony there
of about 200 farm families from Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. A number of
these farmers gave up and returned south, but those who remained made the
experiment a success. The valley now supplies Anchorage with dairy products,
grain, fruit, potatoes, and other vegetables.
A2 | Reindeer |
In the 19th century Alaska Natives
obtained their food from hunting, fishing, and gathering. Between 1891 and 1902
reindeer were imported into the Seward Peninsula, first from Siberia and later
from Scandinavia. Saami were brought from northern Scandinavia to teach the
indigenous peoples how to raise reindeer. In the 1920s descendants of Saami
developed an industry exporting reindeer meat. But as a consequence of the Great
Depression and other factors, the federal government mandated in the mid-1930s
that only Alaska Natives could raise reindeer. It is believed that large numbers
of the reindeer joined caribou herds, were killed by wolves and hunters, or died
from lack of forage. The reindeer industry, however, continued to provide meat
for Alaska’s indigenous peoples, and reindeer are today raised on the Seward
Peninsula and in the Kotzebue area. A significant export of reindeer antlers to
Asia has developed.
B | Fur Industry |
The most significant fur-bearing animal
during the Russian period was the fur seal, which was hunted the length of the
Pacific coast as far south as San Francisco Bay. The main hunt, however,
occurred on the Pribilof Islands. Due to decades of indiscriminate hunting at
sea and a variety of other causes, the fur seal population was in a serious
decline when in 1984 commercial hunting was prohibited and only a much smaller
subsistence harvest by Aleuts living on the Pribilof Islands was allowed to
continue (see Seal (mammal): Fur Seal).
Fur farming has periodically been
attempted in Alaska, but generally has proven to be an economic failure. Fur
trapping, however, continues to provide a significant source of income for many
rural people, particularly Alaska Natives. Market conditions for furs, however,
vary significantly from year to year, and so the industry is not always a
profitable one.
C | Fisheries |
Commercial fishing began in the 1870s.
However, because fishing activities were not regulated, overfishing occurred,
resulting in a serious depletion of stock. The use of giant fish traps, with
which enormous catches were made, was not abolished until Alaska became a state
in 1959.
Alaska is the leading fishing state,
ranking first in both quantity and value of the annual catch. In the 1990s
Alaska experienced record harvests of salmon and other fish. Most of the salmon
are taken in the waters of southern Alaska. In addition, herring and halibut are
caught in the Alaska Panhandle. Shellfish are also an important fishery product
in Alaska. Most of the shellfish caught are shrimp and Dungeness crab. In 2004
the total catch in the state was valued at $1,172 million. A large part of the
catch is landed at Kodiak, where the most important species caught include
salmon and halibut.
D | Forestry |
Although 34 percent of the total land
area of Alaska is classified as forest, much of that is sparse, open woodland,
semimuskeg, and scrubland. In addition, most of the potentially productive
forestland is inaccessible. Nevertheless, about 1.6 million hectares (about 4
million acres) of forests along the coast and another similarly sized tract in
the Interior region are accessible and may have commercial value. The most
valuable timber, consisting of dense stands of hemlock and spruce, is in the
Tongass National Forest and in the Chugach National Forest along the coast.
Nearly all of this timber lies within a few miles of available water
transportation. Much of the state’s lumber exports go to Japan.
E | Mining |
Alaska accounts for one quarter of all
the petroleum produced in the United States and ranks second in production among
the states after Texas. However, oil production declined steadily, falling from
a peak of 2 million barrels a day to 1.3 million by 1997 as the Prudhoe Bay
fields neared depletion. The Kenai Peninsula and Upper Cook Inlet have been
producing modest amounts of petroleum and natural gas since the late 1950s. The
natural gas is used for heating and electricity generation in Kenai and
Anchorage, while some is processed into fertilizer and exported. Alaska also
produces significant quantities of gold, zinc, silver, and lead, and modest
amounts of antimony, platinum, mercury, tin, and other metals.
In the years before Alaska was purchased
by the United States there was very little interest in mining in Alaska itself,
although gold prospectors were active in what is now the Yukon Territory,
Canada. Later, in the 1880s, Juneau and Treadwell, in the Alaska Panhandle, were
founded as gold-mining centers. The big bonanza, however, came in 1896, when
gold deposits were discovered in the Klondike, in the Yukon Territory.
Unsuccessful prospectors in the Yukon then considered the possibilities in
Alaska. They found gold at Nome, Rampart, and Hot Springs, and the overflow from
these camps rushed to the Fairbanks area. By the 1910s production had begun at
copper mines in the Copper River and Prince William Sound areas. A railroad was
built to carry the ore to Cordova.
After World War I (1914-1918) the output
of copper and gold declined. In 1938 the last great copper mine closed. Gold
continues to be produced, mainly in the Fairbanks area and the Yukon and
Kuskokwim river valleys. Gold production declined in the 1960s, but in the
mid-1970s, with the rise in world gold prices, interest in mining was revived,
and a number of previously closed camps were reopened. During the late 1980s and
1990s gold mines of globally significant size have opened near Fairbanks and
Juneau, and a zinc mine has opened north of Kotzebue. A molybdenum deposit has
been defined near Ketchikan but not yet developed. New seismic surveys suggest
that significantly large gold deposits exist in the Fairbanks area.
Coal is found in a number of areas. In
the mid-1990s the only worked bed was in the Healy River valley, about 230 km
(about 140 mi) south of Fairbanks. Most of the coal is exported to South Korea
through the port in Seward, although a significant portion fuels
electricity-generating plants or is burned for heat. Coal has also been mined on
the Kenai Peninsula and in the Matanuska Valley. All of the coal produced is
from strip mines.
Natural gas was discovered in 1949 near
Point Barrow on the Arctic (North) Slope. The Prudhoe Bay region contains one of
the world’s largest deposits of natural gas, most of which is injected back into
the ground to add pressure to the oil deposits, thereby aiding in its
extraction. While numerous proposals have been made to export this gas, the cost
of transportation so far has made exports prohibitively expensive. In 2006
Alaska produced 12.6 billion cu m (445 billion cu ft) of natural gas.
Oil was first discovered on a commercial
scale in the Swanson River area of the Kenai Peninsula in 1957. Other major
discoveries followed as exploration was undertaken throughout Alaska as well as
in the offshore waters in Cook Inlet and along the northern coasts. In 1968 one
of the largest deposits of oil in North America was discovered in the Prudhoe
Bay area of the Arctic Slope. In 1977 shipment of oil began through a 1,300-km
(800-mile) pipeline designed to carry 2 million barrels of crude oil per day to
the ice-free port of Valdez on the southern coast. In the late 1980s, an
important new oil field was discovered at Point McIntyre, just north of the
Prudhoe Bay field. Alaska produced 270 million barrels of crude oil in
2006.
F | Manufacturing |
Manufacturing in Alaska is generally
limited to the processing of local raw materials, and the state still has to
import most of the manufactured goods it needs. However, manufacturing does play
an important role in the economic life of the state, providing goods for
shipment to other states and foreign countries. Alaska’s chief manufactures are
foodstuffs; gasoline and petrochemicals; and some consumer goods. Canned and
frozen fish products account for most of Alaska’s output of foodstuffs. Fish
processing is carried on at numerous centers, including Ketchikan, Petersburg,
Sitka, Cordova, and especially Kodiak, Dutch Harbor-Unalaska, Dillingham, and
numerous other places on the Alaska Peninsula and Bristol Bay. The first oil
refinery in Alaska opened near Kenai in 1963. In 1969 a major petrochemical
complex was established in the same area.
G | Electricity |
Southeastern and much of south central
Alaska obtain electricity from small hydroelectric facilities, particularly near
Juneau, Sitka, Kodiak, Valdez, and Homer (Bradley Lakes). Anchorage obtains some
electricity from a dam at Eklutna, but most of its power and heat is generated
from natural gas. The Interior relies on coal-fired plants, including a new
environmentally sound plant at Healy. Most of the remainder of Alaska relies on
oil or diesel power generation, except for a massive installation at Prudhoe
Bay, which uses natural gas to power the oil extraction complex. Thermal power
plants burning fossil fuels supply 78 percent of Alaska’s electricity, with the
rest generated at hydroelectric dams.
H | Tourist Industry |
Early in the 1950s Alaskans recognized
tourism as a major source of income and tourists discovered Alaska as a
vacationland. Each year visitors spend $1.3 billion while in Alaska. The
development and advertising of national parks has contributed to a dramatic
increase in Alaskan tourism during the past decade. Tourists come in organized
groups on tour ships, buses, or airplanes; as motor home caravans; and as
individuals enjoying a wilderness experience. International tourism has also
shown a dramatic increase in the 1990s.
I | Transportation |
The traditional means of transportation
in Alaska were for many decades the boat and dogsled. Boats are still more
useful than automobiles in some communities, especially in the Alaska Panhandle.
Air transportation, whether by commercial jet or small prop-driven airplanes,
connects most cities and villages.
I1 | Highways |
The only road into the state is the
Alaska Highway, built as a military supply route in 1942 and extending from
Dawson Creek, British Columbia, to Delta Junction south of Fairbanks, a distance
of 2,288 km (1,422 mi). Another major land route, entirely within Alaska, is the
Richardson Highway, about 590 km (about 370 mi), which connects Valdez with
Fairbanks. In 2005 the state had 23,121 km (14,367 mi) of highways, including
1,740 km (1,081 mi) of the federal highway system. Even though Alaska has vast
distances they are generally not connected by roads. All but three of the
states–Rhode Island, Delaware, and Hawaii–have longer road systems than does
Alaska.
I2 | Railroads |
Mining encouraged some railroad
development in Alaska, including a line from Skagway to the Canadian Yukon
goldfields and a line from the copper mines to Cordova. The Alaska Railroad, the
only major line, was begun in 1914 and completed in 1923. It extends 814 km (506
mi), from Seward via Anchorage to Fairbanks. Nonmetallic minerals account for 38
of the tonnage of goods hauled by rail, while petroleum products constitute 30
percent and coal 24 percent. The state of Alaska purchased the Alaska Railroad
from the federal government and now operates it as a state-owned corporation.
The White Pass and Yukon Railroad, from Skagway to Whitehorse, has been
redeveloped as a popular summer tourist attraction.
I3 | Airports |
There are more airplanes per person in
Alaska than in any other state. The airplane is the cheapest means of
long-distance travel and well suited to serve a small population scattered over
a large area. The use of small, light aircraft typifies local air travel, but
Alaska also has jet service to its principal communities. The state had 28
airports in 2007, nearly all of them small airstrips. The airport in Anchorage
is the state’s busiest.
I4 | Shipping |
Ships carry cargo and passengers
between Alaska and the Pacific coast states and Asia. The principal ports along
Alaska’s Pacific coast are Anchorage, Ketchikan, Skagway, Wrangell, Sitka,
Whittier, Valdez, Kodiak, and Dutch Harbor-Unalaska, which are ice-free
throughout the year. Nome is the principal port on the Bering Sea, but is open
for only a short period during the ice-free summer weeks. In summer large
cargoes are often towed on barges to Prudhoe Bay. A state-operated ferry system
connects ports in Alaska with those in Washington State and British Columbia,
Canada.
J | Trade |
Most of Alaska’s food supply, with the
exception of some dairy products, fish, poultry, and vegetables, has to be
shipped in from other states. Manufactured foods must also be imported. Alaska
has become a major foreign-exporting state primarily because of its fisheries
and mining. Alaska’s exports of fish, minerals, and some forest products have an
annual value of as much as $3 billion a year. Most goods go to Japan, South
Korea, and other Asian markets, and in recent years exports to the Russian Far
East have been increasing. Alaska imports most of its consumer goods, primarily
through the port of Anchorage, and the Alaskan trade has long been important to
the economies of the ports of Seattle and Tacoma in Washington state.
IV | THE PEOPLE OF ALASKA |
According to the 2000 national census,
Alaska had a population of 626,932, an increase of 14 percent over the 1990
population of 550,043. In 2000 Alaska ranked 48th among the states in
population, ahead of Vermont and Wyoming.
Alaska is still the most sparsely populated
state, and had just 0.5 person per sq km (1.2 per sq mi) of land in 2006. Most
of the people live along the coasts and the river valleys. Some sections of the
Interior and Arctic Slope regions remain uninhabited. In 2000 some 66 percent of
all Alaskans lived in areas classified as urban, where the population is
increasing much faster than in the rural areas. Since the early days of
settlement, the cities and towns of Alaska have attracted comparatively more
immigrants than the rural areas.
Whites make up 69.3 percent of the
population of Alaska. The largest other group is composed of descendants of the
state’s original inhabitants–the Eskimo (also known as the Inuit), the Aleut,
and other indigenous peoples–who account for 15.6 percent of the total. The
state’s population also includes Asians, who are 4 percent of the total; blacks,
with 3.5 percent of the total; Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders,
with 0.5 percent; and those of mixed heritage or not reporting race, at 7
percent. Hispanics, who may be of any race, are 4.1 percent of the people.
The population of Alaska is relatively
young. At the time of the census in 2000, 30 percent of the population was less
than 18 years old.
A | Population Patterns |
Since 1867 the populations of the main
communities in Alaska have fluctuated considerably. In 1890, settlement was
almost entirely along the coast, and the only sizable community was Juneau. By
1900, when the gold rush was under way, Nome had become the largest population
center. Ten years later, it had shrunk to one-tenth its former size, and many
other gold-mining centers had disappeared altogether. However, the Panhandle
communities of Juneau, Ketchikan, Petersburg, and Wrangell had maintained their
size, and Fairbanks, Kodiak, and the community of Kenai had begun to
develop.
By the 1930s, Anchorage had grown to
become one of the largest communities in the territory. Most of Alaska’s
population increase after World War II has been concentrated in the Anchorage
area and in other parts of south central Alaska. Between 1940 and 1960 the total
population of south central Alaska, the focus of military activity in the state,
tripled in size to about 155,000. Southeastern Alaska grew steadily, but not
spectacularly. Fairbanks developed as the hub of the Interior and occupies a
central position in highway and air transportation. The remaining sections of
the state still have by far the smallest population.
B | Principal Cities |
Most of the principal cities in Alaska
lie along the coast in the southern part of the state. All of them are small by
comparison with the chief cities of nearly all other states.
Anchorage, with a population (2005
estimate) of 275,043, is by far the largest city in Alaska. It serves as the
chief commercial center of southern Alaska and as the principal transportation
center of the entire state.
Fairbanks has a population of 31,142. As
the terminus for the Alaska Railroad and the Parks Highway to Anchorage, it is
also the jumping-off point for cargoes destined for Prudhoe Bay. The statewide
offices of the University of Alaska are located in Fairbanks.
Juneau, with a population of 30,987, is
the state capital and the largest city in the Alaska Panhandle. It is also a
port and commercial center. Sitka was the capital of Russian America and the
first capital of the territory of Alaska. The port city is now a government and
education center, a significant tourist destination, and a center for fisheries,
with a population of 8,986. Ketchikan, with a population of 7,446, ranks as one
of the leading salmon-fishing ports in the world.
Other communities of note in Alaska
include Kodiak, which was established as a Russian fur-trading center late in
the 18th century and is now one of the oldest communities in Alaska. Dutch
Harbor-Unalaska is a globally significant fishing port and the main city for the
Aleutian Island, while Petersburg is a major fishing port in southeastern
Alaska. Nome, which was once the largest city in Alaska, is now the state’s
principal port on the Bering Sea and a trade center. Seward serves as the
southern terminus of the Alaska Railroad and another of the state’s chief ports.
Barrow, located near Point Barrow, is the northernmost community in the United
States.
C | Religion |
The first Russian Orthodox Church in
Alaska was built at Sitka in 1816 to serve the Russian colony there and as a
base for missionary work among the indigenous peoples. It was replaced in 1848
by the Cathedral of Saint Michael, which, after a fire in 1966, has been
completely rebuilt and is now a major tourist destination in addition to being a
functioning parish of the Russian Orthodox Church. There are other churches and
chapels of the diocese along the coast and in the Aleutians. The church has a
seminary for priests in Kodiak.
Several Protestant denominations,
including the Lutherans and the Presbyterians, were already active in Alaska in
the 19th century. Presbyterians originally founded Sheldon Jackson College at
Sitka as a mission and an industrial school for Native Americans. The Episcopal
Church sent missionaries to the Yukon River valley in the 1880s, and Fairbanks
is the seat of an Episcopal missionary bishopric.
Other Protestant denominations in Alaska
include the United Methodists, whose churches are part of a larger regional
conference with headquarters at Portland, Oregon, and the Southern Baptists, who
form the largest of the Baptist congregations.
In the 1880s the Society of Jesus became
the second Roman Catholic religious order to enter Alaska, replacing the
Catholic Oblate fathers, and working particularly in the Yukon River region. In
1951 the Roman Catholic diocese of Juneau was created.
V | EDUCATION AND CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS |
A | Education |
Until 1912, the only federally supported
schools in Alaska were run through various missionary groups exclusively for
Alaska Natives. The immigrant American population built their own schools based
on private donations. The territorial government, established in 1912, built an
educational system for nonindigenous peoples, while the federal government
continued to run Native schools until the 1970s. Today the state of Alaska
provides the primary financial support for all public schools in the state.
Private schools, primarily associated with religious groups, are
self-supporting. School attendance in Alaska is compulsory for all children from
age 7 to 16. Some 5 percent of the state’s children attend private schools.
In the 2002–2003 school year Alaska spent
$11,896 on each student’s education, compared to a national average of $9,299.
There were 17.2 students for every teacher (the national norm was 15.9
students). Of those older than 25 years of age in the state, 89.7 percent had a
high school diploma in 2006, the highest level of educational attainment of any
state except Washington.
A1 | Higher Education |
The University of Alaska, established in
1917 as the Alaska Agricultural and School of Mines, became a university in
1935. It currently is divided into three major units based in Fairbanks,
Anchorage, and Juneau, and has community colleges and extension centers in
almost every large Alaskan community. The University of Alaska Fairbanks is a
world leader in research concerning the Arctic, Antarctic, fisheries,
volcanology, and numerous other fields.
Sheldon Jackson College in Sitka is
private and retains an identification with the Presbyterian Church. Alaska
Pacific University in Anchorage, founded by the Methodist Church, is also
private. There is also a religious college in Glenallen and an Orthodox seminary
in Kodiak.
A2 | Cultural Institutions |
Art shows, theater, and musical and
dance groups are widespread in Alaskan communities, including Anchorage,
Fairbanks, Juneau, Sitka, Haines, Kodiak, and elsewhere. The Alaska State Museum
in Juneau, the Sheldon Jackson Museum in Sitka, the Anchorage Historical and
Fine Arts Museum, and the museum of the University of Alaska Fairbanks have
notable collections of Native artifacts and relics. In the museum in Juneau are
relics of the Russian occupation, one of the pens used to sign the Alaska
Statehood Act, and a facsimile of the canceled check for $7.2 million used to
purchase Alaska. Anchorage and Fairbanks have symphony orchestras.
Much of the culture of Alaska’s Natives
disappeared with the great epidemics prior to the 1950s. The educational system
also discouraged Native arts and culture, while Alaska Natives for the most part
sought to join in the economic, social, and political life of Alaska. In recent
decades, however, there has been a significant revival of interest in Native
culture as well as Native arts and crafts. Native languages, except in some
regions, have significantly declined, but language training programs now exist.
Even with the many cultural and economic impediments that have existed over the
past century, very significant elements of Native life remain in Alaska, and
Native cultures, although modified, remain strong and vibrant.
B | Communications |
The first newspaper printed in Alaska, the
Alaska Times, was founded at Sitka in 1869. In 2002 there were 7 daily
newspapers in addition to many weekly newspapers in the state. The leading
dailies include the Anchorage Daily News, the Fairbanks Daily
News-Miner, and the Juneau Empire.
The state’s first radio station, KFQD,
began operation in Anchorage in 1924. In 2002 Alaska had 33 AM and 40 FM radio
stations, and 13 television stations.
VI | RECREATION AND PLACES OF INTEREST |
Alaska is a state where the visitor can
watch a mass migration of caribou herds across the arctic plains, see the tundra
blossom overnight into a riot of color, and observe polar bears and walruses in
their native habitat. It is the land of the midnight sun and the noontide moon.
Few states offer such contrasts as the frozen ice fields and steaming volcanoes,
the vast Interior and its towering peaks, the fjords of the Panhandle and the
seemingly endless flatlands of the river deltas.
A | National Parks |
The 15 national parks in Alaska are home
to the United States’ tallest mountains and biggest glaciers and some of its
most exotic wildlife. Alaska contains the country’s six largest national parks:
Wrangell-Saint Elias, Gates of the Arctic, Denali, Lake Clark, Katmai, and
Glacier Bay.
Of the 20 highest mountains in the United
States, 17 are in Alaska. Mount McKinley, North America’s largest mountain at
6,194 m (20,320 ft), is a defining highlight in Denali National Park and
Preserve. The second tallest mountain, Mount Saint Elias (5,489 m/18,008 ft), is
located in Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, a park characterized
by remote mountains, valleys, and wild rivers, all rich with wildlife.
Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve is
just one of the areas in which visitors can find examples of geological
phenomena. Since it was first seen by British explorer George Vancouver in the
1790s, the wall of ice that shadows Glacier Bay has retreated about 100 km
(about 60 mi). Harding Icefield and forested coastal fjords are the highlights
of Kenai Fjords National Park. Spectacular scenery stretches across the Lake
Clark National Park and Preserve from the Cook Inlet to the Chigmit Mountains,
which include two active volcanoes, Mount Redoubt and Mount Iliamna. More
evidence of Alaska’s natural history can be found at Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes, where steam rises from a few active volcanic vents at Katmai National
Park and Preserve. In the Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve, the
Aniakchak River cascades through a gash 500 m (1,600 ft) long at the rim of a
volcano crater.
Alaska’s national parks also preserve the
state’s rich cultural history. The Bering Land Bridge National Preserve is a
remnant of the land bridge that once connected Asia with North America, the
route the earliest residents took to the continent. Cape Krusenstern National
Monument contains archaeological sites that illustrate Eskimo communities dating
back some 4,000 years. Sitka National Historical Park commemorates the Battle of
Sitka, the only armed conflict between Alaska Nativesand Europeans. Relics of
the 1898 gold rush are preserved at the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical
Park and the Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve.
Several parks embody the state’s nickname
The Last Frontier because of their remote locations. They are generally
accessible only by chartered planes and recommended only to those adventurers
who are confident in their outdoor survival skills. Lying entirely north of the
Arctic Circle, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, the northernmost
extension of the Rocky Mountains, is the second largest national park in the
United States. The Great Kobuk Sand Dunes are located in the Kobuk Valley
National Park. A rich array of Arctic wildlife can be found in this park and the
neighboring Noatak National Preserve, including caribou, grizzly and black bear,
wolf, and fox.
B | National Forests |
Alaska’s Tongass and Chugach National
Forests are America’s first and second largest national forests, respectively.
While both parks share public services such as easy access, camping, trails,
interpretive centers, and hunting and fishing, each has a unique flavor
determined by its landscape and wildlife.
The Tongass National Forest, covering
Alaska’s Panhandle region, has nearly quadrupled in size since it was
established in 1902, today encompassing 7 million hectares (17 million acres).
Because of its size, the Tongass is divided into three areas: the Ketchikan
area, from Prince of Wales and the outer islands to Misty Fjord and north to the
Cleveland Peninsula; the Stikine area, from the islands north of Prince of Wales
and south of Admiralty Island and the mainland north to Cape Fanshaw; and the
Chatham area, which covers the northern portion of the panhandle.
Some 19 designated wilderness
areas—undeveloped lands set aside to protect their ecological diversity—are
scattered throughout the Tongass National Forest. The Kootznoowoo Wilderness
area, or “fortress of the bears” as it is called by local Tlingit, covers nearly
all of Admiralty Island National Monument. Misty Fjords National Monument, in
the southern part of southeast Alaska, is known for its narrow, steep-walled
canyons.
Prince of Wales Island, part of the
Alexander Archipelago in the southernmost portion of the Alaska Panhandle, is
the third largest island in the United States. The island is dominated by steep,
forested mountains and deep U-shaped valleys, streams, lakes, saltwater straits,
and bays that were carved by glacial ice.
On the eastern boundary of the 2.3
million-hectare (5.6 million-acre) Chugach National Forest is Kayak Island where
more than 250 years ago George Wilhelm Steller, a naturalist traveling with
Danish navigator Vitus Bering, became the first European to set foot in what is
now Alaska. One-third of the Chugach National Forest is rock and moving ice. The
rest is a diverse tapestry of land, water, plants, and animals. This national
forest boasts numerous trails to the wooded mountains and crystal waters of the
Kenai Peninsula, the islands and glaciers of Prince William Sound, and the
wetlands and birds of the Copper River Delta. The delta is a unique wetlands
ecosystem where tens of millions of birds spend all or part of their lives.
C | State Parks |
Development of Alaska’s state park system
began in the 1960s. Alaska’s state parks include trail systems, recreation
areas, camping, boating, and highway waysides. Many more include historic sites
relating to Native, Russian, and American phases in Alaska’s history.
Parks in the interior portion of the
state have average summer temperatures in the mid-20°s C (70°s F), but can fall
below -20°C (below 0°F) during the winter. Summer activities include boating,
fishing, climbing, and hiking. Wintertime activities include dog mushing,
snowmobiling, trapping, and cross-country skiing. Denali State Park, adjacent to
Denali National Park and Preserve, has interpretive centers and a view of Mount
McKinley. The lowland spruce forests of the Chena River State Recreation Area
are east of Fairbanks. Quartz Lake State Recreation Area is known for its
excellent sport fishing. Fielding Lake State Recreation Area, also known for
sport fishing, is nestled among tundra-covered hills within the Alaska
Range.
Surrounding the southern and eastern
sides of the Anchorage bowl, a region of milder temperatures, is Chugach State
Park, the third largest state park in the country. Lakes, glaciers, and
mountains make this 200,000-hectare (495,000-acre) park a popular destination
all year long. Lakes, streams, and swamps make up just over half of Nancy Lake
State Recreation Area’s 9,180 hectares (22,685 acres). Parks in the southwest
region, such as Kachemak Bay State Park and Caines Head State Recreation Area,
are host to king and pink salmon, seals, porpoise, puffins and other waterfowl,
and eagles. At nearby Halibut Cove Lagoon visitors enjoy berry picking, clam
digging, and fishing for Dungeness crab and shrimp. Shuyak Island State Park is
at the northern tip of the Kodiak Archipelago and is subject to the severe and
unpredictable weather common along the North Pacific Ocean. Afognak Island State
Park is just south of Shuyak Island.
There is access from Point Bridget State
Park (near Juneau) to several recreation sites popular for their beachcombing,
wildlife viewing, fishing, and boating opportunities. The Grindall Island State
Marine Park, located near Ketchikan, is forested with hemlock, cedar, and
spruce. Seymour Canal, at Oliver Inlet State Marine Park, has the greatest known
concentration of nesting bald eagles in the world. Seals, sea lions, and whales
use the canal throughout the year.
D | Other Places of Interest |
Visitors can see many marine animals and
birds at the Alaska SeaLife Center, which opened in May 1998 on Resurrection Bay
in Seward, Alaska. This new marine wildlife facility allows close observation of
wildlife in several realistically simulated ocean environments and offers a
number of hands-on learning programs about marine habitats and environmental
protection. The center was financed jointly by public subscription from the
citizens of Seward and funds from the Exxon Valdez oil spill settlement.
It houses significant research laboratories for marine scientists under the
direction of the School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences of the University of
Alaska Fairbanks. Facilities also exist for the rehabilitation of sick and
injured wildlife.
Visitors can also discover more about
the importance of the natural environment to Alaska’s indigenous peoples and
particularly their artistic traditions at locations throughout the state. In
southeastern Alaska, totem poles, house posts, and other totemic art carved from
the region’s large cedar trees by Native artists can be viewed in many places
including Totem Heritage Center in Ketchikan, Saxman Totem Park, and Totem Bight
State Historical Park as well as Hydaburg and Chief Shakes Island. Two of the
oldest totem parks are the Kiksadi at Wrangell and Totem Pole Park at Sitka.
Original Native art can be viewed at the Sheldon Jackson Museum in Sitka and the
University of Alaska Fairbanks museum, while Native artists display their
talents at the Sitka National Historical Park and elsewhere. Other places
displaying Native art and original housing types include Kotzebue and Fairbanks,
while much Native art can be purchased in Anchorage stores run by Natives.
Much art and architecture from the
Russian period in Alaska’s history can be seen in Sitka, Unalaska, Kenai,
Eklutna (near Wasilla), Kodiak, Fairbanks and elsewhere. The Russian American
Diocese of the Orthodox Church of America has preserved this art.
E | Annual Events |
Many of the state and local events that
were originally established by Alaskans for their own entertainment have begun
to attract tourists. The Anchorage Fur Rendezvous is a week-long celebration in
February featuring fur auctions, sled-dog races, fireworks, and outdoor games.
Ice carvers from around the world compete in the Fairbanks Ice Art Competition
in March. People come from many parts of the world to participate in Alaskan dog
mushing competitions, including the extremely difficult Yukon Quest and Iditarod
races. In May, while some enjoy the Copper River Delta Shorebird Festival
celebrating the migrating shorebirds, the hardiest souls are braving the frigid
waters of the Bering Sea during the Polar Bear Swim in Nome.
Alaska summers are filled with fairs,
rodeos, and midnight sun fun. Fairbanks, Nome, and Anchorage each hold
festivities during the summer solstice in June. Gold Rush Days in Juneau, held
in late June, and Golden Days in Fairbanks, in July, commemorate the gold rush
days with logging and mining skill events. Marathons are run in Seward in July
and Fairbanks in September. Valdez, Seward, and other coastal communities have
salmon and halibut derbies all summer long. Many communities hold fairs in the
month of August, including Alaska state fairs in Palmer, Haines, and
Fairbanks.
Autumn months bring festivals such as
Sitka’s Alaska Day, commemorating the day the United States purchased Alaska
from Russia, the Alaska Bald Eagle Festival, held in Haines near where thousands
of bald eagles gather in the peak of winter, and the Bachelor Society
Ball/Wilderness Women’s Contests, in Talkeetna.
VII | GOVERNMENT |
Alaska’s constitution was adopted in 1956
and became effective when Alaska entered the Union in 1959. The constitution
provides for the initiative, referendum, and recall. State constitutional
amendments may be proposed by the legislature or by a constitutional convention.
In order to become effective they must be approved by voters in a general
election. The state’s constitution requires voters to decide every ten years
whether to call a constitutional convention. So far none have been called.
A | Executive |
The governor and the lieutenant governor
are the only elective executive officials. Both serve four-year terms. Heads of
executive departments are appointed by the governor but must be confirmed by a
majority vote in a joint session of the legislature. The governor has the power
to veto legislation and to veto or reduce items in appropriations bills.
B | Legislative |
The state legislature consists of a
20-member Senate and a 40-member House of Representatives. The legislature meets
in Juneau each January. Legislative sessions last for 120 days, although the
governor may call a special session to consider specific items. Members of the
senate serve for four years, and members of the house serve for two years. The
state is divided into election districts, based on the distribution of
population.
C | Judicial |
The state judicial system consists of a
supreme court of five justices, a court of appeals, superior courts, and
district magistrate courts. The chief justice of the supreme court has
responsibility for the administration of all courts. The governor appoints each
justice, who must be confirmed in office by voters in the first general election
held after the justice has served for three years on the court. Thereafter, the
justice must be reconfirmed by voters every ten years.
D | Local Government |
Alaska is not divided into counties; the
chief units of local government in the mid-1990s were 12 boroughs, 3 unified
home-rule municipalities (combining the functions of boroughs and cities), 149
other incorporated communities, and 132 unincorporated communities. Most of the
boroughs and incorporated communities had elected mayors and councils.
E | National Representation |
Alaska is represented in the Congress of
the United States by two senators and one representative. The state casts three
electoral votes in presidential elections.
VIII | HISTORY |
A | Earliest Inhabitants |
Experts agree that America was
discovered by Siberian hunters, ancestors of most of the present-day Native
Americans, who were following Ice Age mammals into Alaska. These migrants came
over the Bering Land Bridge, about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) wide, when ice sheets
locked up much of the earth’s water supply and lowered the sea level. Genetic
evidence suggests that several waves of migrants came across the land bridge.
When the ice receded, the sea level rose until Alaska and Siberia were again
separated by the Bering Sea. The earliest artifacts yet found in Alaska date
from about 12,000 years ago, toward the end of the Ice Age. The forerunners of
the Eskimo culture apparently came about 6,000 years ago.
A1 | Northwest Coast Peoples |
Southeastern, also called the
Panhandle, is in the Northwest Coast cultural zone, which reaches from Prince
William Sound to northern California. The indigenous peoples of this zone
developed a culture based on the area’s great natural resources. Seafood was
abundant in the form of salmon, halibut, cod, herring, smelt, candlefish, edible
mollusks, and marine mammals. Land game abounded, and vegetable foods were
easily obtained. This food surplus allowed these people much leisure time to
devote to cultural activities.
Three peoples, the Tlingit, Haida,
and Tsimshian, occupied the Alaskan coast south of Prince William Sound. The
Tlingit, the most numerous, were scattered in many permanent villages. They
spoke a language believed to be related to the Athapaskan language group of the
Interior. They had about 14 tribal divisions and were expanding westward when
they made contact with the Russians in 1741.
The Haida lived in British Columbia’s
Queen Charlotte Islands and the southern part of Alaska’s Prince of Wales
Island. Tradition has it that they moved north in the 1700s, displacing some of
the Tlingit tribes.
The Tsimshian lived in Southeastern
and the nearby islands. Those living along Metlakatla Pass shifted to Fort
Simpson, British Columbia, after Britain’s Hudson’s Bay Company built the fort
in 1834. In 1887 a large group of Tsimshian, primarily from Fort Simpson and led
by Anglican missionary William Duncan, moved to Annette Island in Alaska.
The three groups fished with fish
traps, nets, hook and line, and dip nets. They used harpoons with detachable
heads connected to the shaft with a line. They built fine canoes of various
sizes. For land hunting, they used the bow and arrow, snares, and deadfalls.
Wood was a primary material for most of their products, which were distinguished
by fine workmanship and carved and painted decorations. Their tool blades were
made of stone and shell, and they used nephrite stone for adze blades. They
built large, rectangular, gable-roofed houses occupied by several families.
The social framework was matrilineal:
descent was traced through the mother’s line. The Tlingit and Haida each had two
major moieties, or subdivisions, and marriage within one’s own moiety was
forbidden. The Tlingit also had clans, which were smaller social divisions
traced from a legendary common ancestor. These societies had social classes,
such as chiefs, nobles, commoners, and slaves, but there was much mobility among
classes.
Each clan or lineage was usually
politically independent, claimed fishing, hunting, and berrying grounds, had its
own houses and chiefs, and operated socially and ceremonially as an independent
unit. It had its own crest, personal names, and songs and dances for ceremonial
occasions. Warfare was well established, its aim to drive out or even
exterminate another lineage or family and acquire its lands and
possessions.
Religious belief centered around a
disinterested supreme being or beings, the immortality of economically important
animals, and lifelong assistance from a personal guardian spirit.
An important feature of Northwest
Coast social life was the potlatch, a party where the host gave away goods to
the guests. A potlatch was given after someone died. It was also given to mark
an unusual accomplishment or to celebrate an important family event. Feasting,
dancing, and speechmaking preceded the gift giving. The larger the potlatch, the
more ceremonial it was and the more wealth was distributed.
Potlatching was a way to achieve
prestige. If a man aspired to leadership, he had to celebrate whenever an
opportunity arose. The potlatch giver had to have a sufficient supply of food,
calico, blankets, furs, and other goods to give away on these occasions.
A2 | The Athapaskans |
Unlike the coastal Natives with their
plentiful resources, the speakers of the Athapaskan languages lived in the
demanding arctic and subarctic lands at the northern edge of the continent. This
huge area was not rich in resources, and people had to search diligently for
them. Long, cold winters and short, warm summers characterized the region. The
wildlife included moose, caribou, black and grizzly bears, sheep, and various
small game and fish.
The Athapaskans were nomadic or
seminomadic hunters and gatherers, relying on fish and caribou as staples. They
fished for salmon with dip nets and basket-shaped traps. They also caught trout,
whitefish, and pike, using various fishing methods. They hunted some mammals
with bows and arrows and snares. Bears, wolverines, and smaller fur-bearing
animals were caught in deadfalls, shot with bows and arrows, or captured in
rawhide nets. Snares were used for hares and ptarmigans. Spruce hens, ducks,
geese, and roots and berries supplemented their diets, but periods of starvation
were not unusual.
The type of shelter varied by climate
and time of year. All Athapaskans built log or pole houses of various sizes
covered with animal hides. The more mobile groups lived in simple dwellings. The
more sedentary groups, such as the Ingalik in the Yukon and Kuskokwim basins,
occupied permanent winter villages and summer fishing camps. They built winter
houses that resembled the semisubterranean, earth-covered Eskimo houses.
The Athapaskans had a simple society.
They spent most of the year in small bands of a few nuclear families. Kinship
was matrilineal, and kin groups were held together by reciprocal social
obligations. A member generally had to find a spouse outside the kin group. If
resources allowed, small groups came together and combined into a regional band,
to hunt caribou, for example. Although men made decisions together, leaders
often emerged who attained prestige through their superior abilities,
particularly as hunters. The Athapaskans engaged in both offensive and defensive
warfare, and often produced a war leader who demonstrated great physical
strength. Generally, leadership was not hereditary but acquired; once a leader
lost his special abilities he no longer exerted any influence.
The Athapaskans had ceremonial feasts
where the host gave goods to the guests. Such a feast was given after someone
died. After the Athapaskans began to acquire wealth through trade with the
whites, ceremonial feasts were given more often and modeled after the potlatches
of the Northwest Coast. Feasts were given to mark the killing of the first game
of each kind by a child; to mark a deed or an unusual accomplishment; to
celebrate the return, recovery, or rescue of a relative or friend; and to pay
for an offense or transgression. A man was expected to potlatch at least once
and preferably three times before he married. The potlatch giver had to give
away all the property he owned and could not accept aid from anyone else for a
year after the ceremony.
The Athapaskans lived in a world of
many spirits, which they believed influenced every aspect of their lives. They
believed that human souls were reincarnated in animal form and that they had to
placate animal spirits to use the natural environment. Shamans were the only
religious practitioners and possessed the greatest personal power in the
culture. They used magical-religious rites to control the spirit world, prevent
and cure disease, bring game to hunters, predict the weather, and foretell the
future.
A3 | The Eskimo |
Eskimo culture developed in western
Alaska, and it was also there that the Eskimo and Aleut languages diverged from
each other. In time the Eskimo developed techniques to exploit the arctic seas.
The Arctic Small Tool tradition, starting in Siberia, was the technological
base. It developed further in Alaska and spread across the Arctic to Greenland
about 4,000 years ago.
From Alaska’s northern coast to
Greenland the Eskimo hunted large sea mammals such as whales, walruses, and
seals. Some groups, however, depended on caribou hunting as their mainstay.
These groups included the Caribou Eskimo in Canada’s Barren Grounds west of
Hudson Bay, and smaller groups along the Colville and Noatak rivers and in the
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Despite these differences, the Eskimo were fairly uniform
culturally. This happened because about 1,000 years ago the whaling-oriented
Thule culture, with its innovations of dog teams and kayaks, spread from Alaska,
eventually reaching all the way to Greenland.
Eskimo social life centered around
the nuclear family. However, there were also men’s organizations related to
hunting. The Yupik Eskimo, for instance, had ceremonial houses for men, where
men taught traditional skills to the boys, while mothers taught their daughters
in the homes. Most marriages took place within the community.
Survival depended on the ability to
take game and fish. These animals, therefore, were important in religion, and
the Eskimo placed great importance on charms to aid in hunting. There were also
many taboos, such as a prohibition against combining land and sea products. The
Bering Sea Eskimo had elaborate rituals that centered around the animals they
hunted; the so-called bladder feast was the most complex of the various
ceremonies and focused primarily on seals. The northern coast hunters and
fishers, on the other hand, did not develop such complex rituals.
A4 | The Aleut |
The Aleut adapted superbly to life in
the difficult environment of the Aleutian Islands. They developed a rich culture
and obtained a well-balanced livelihood from the sea. But neither their culture
nor their livelihood survived for long after their first contact with the
Russians in the 1740s.
The typical Aleut house, built
underground, housed several related nuclear families. Villages consisted of
related individuals, and large villages might have as many as four such
dwellings occupied at one time. These were the permanent settlements, usually
situated on the northern (Bering Sea) side of the island because of the more
abundant marine resources and driftwood supplies. The Aleut also built seasonal
houses.
Aleut society was divided into three
classes: honorables, common people, and slaves. The Aleut shared with the
Tlingit their regard for wealth and status. There may also have been cultural
links with Siberian groups. Descent was probably matrilineal. Households usually
included a man and his wife or wives, older married sons and their families, and
sometimes a younger brother and his family. The adolescent sons of the household
head were sent to their mother’s village to be reared by her older brothers.
Women owned their houses.
Living where the sea is free of ice,
the Aleut developed sophisticated open-sea hunting techniques to harvest the sea
otter, hair seal, sea lion, and migrating fur seals and whales. They shared many
tools with the southern Eskimo, such as the two-hole kayak and bone and antler
implements. The Aleut used a multibarbed harpoon head for large sea mammals and
also fished for cod and halibut with hook and line. They caught salmon in nets
or traps as the fish ascended the streams to spawn. They collected clams and
other mollusks and ate large quantities of green spiny sea urchins. They also
gathered kelp and other seaweed, salmonberries, blueberries, crowberries, and
roots to eat.
Birds and their eggs provided much
food. More than 140 species are found in the islands, and not surprisingly the
Aleut not only used the birds for meat and eggs, but also used their skins for
parkas and for decorations. Hunters captured birds on the ground in nets or with
snares and caught them in flight with bolas. A bola consisted of four to six
strings about 1 m (3 ft) long, tied together at one end. To the free end were
attached small stones for weight. As birds flew overhead, the hunter twirled the
bola and threw it into the flock, each string swinging out like a spoke on a
wheel. The strings wrapped around the bird and brought it down.
The Aleut also used the throwing
stick, or atlatl, a long, narrow board with one end carved to fit the
hand and with a small peg inserted at the other end to hold the butt of the
spear shaft. The spear was laid on the board and then thrown. The device gave
more power and distance to the cast.
B | Early European Exploration |
B1 | Russian Expeditions |
In 1654 Russian merchant Fedot
Alekseyev sailed east from the Kolyma Peninsula of Siberia in search of the
Pogicha River, believed to be rich in walrus tusks, sable furs, and gold. Semyon
Ivanovich Dezhnyov went along to collect the yasak, or tax on the fur trade. The
yasak amounted to one-tenth of the furs obtained by merchants and a somewhat
smaller percentage of furs traded by indigenous peoples. On this voyage,
Dezhnyov was the first person to sail from the Arctic into the Pacific via what
is now called Bering Strait. However, his report of the discovery was apparently
never forwarded to the central government. Thus Tsar Peter the Great did not
know whether Siberia was joined to North America. Shortly before his death in
1725, Peter the Great posed the question to Captain-Commander Vitus Bering, a
Danish navigator in the service of Russia. Bering sailed to find out,
rediscovering Bering Strait in 1728, but because of heavy fog, he failed to
sight North America.
In 1733 the Russian government
appointed Bering to head a great expedition to inventory Siberia’s resources and
establish trade with Japan. He was also to explore the American coast. Bering
set out for America from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski, on Siberia’s Kamchatka
Peninsula, on June 8, 1741, in two ships: the Sviatoi Petr (Saint Peter),
which he commanded, and the Sviatoi Pavel (Saint Paul), commanded by Aleksey
Chirikov. Each ship had several scientists aboard. On June 20 the vessels became
separated. On July 15 Chirikov sighted land, probably Prince of Wales Island.
Bering, who was farther north, came upon Kayak Island the next day. He could see
a great mountain in the distance, which he named Saint Elias because July 16 was
St. Elias’s Day. Georg Wilhelm Steller, the ship’s surgeon and a noted German
scientist, went ashore on Kayak Island to gather plants to help crew members
suffering from scurvy. While ashore, Steller gathered artifacts, plant
specimens, and a few birds and concluded that the ship had reached North
America.
Chirikov returned to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski on October 8, but
Bering’s ship was wrecked in the Komandorskiye Islands east of Kamchatka. The
explorers spent the winter on what is now Bering Island, and Bering died there.
In the spring they built a crude boat out of the wreckage of the Sviatoi
Petr and got back to Kamchatka in September. Bering’s voyage established
Russia’s claim to northwestern North America.
The Russian ruler, Empress Elizabeth,
was not interested in North America. She issued an order that the Natives should
pay the yasak and be well treated, but otherwise ignored Alaska. Russia showed
little interest for the next 50 years, although individuals were lured to the
Aleutians by the prospect of profits in furs. Bering’s party had brought back
animal pelts, notably those of the sea otter, one of the finest fur-bearing
animals. A ready market developed in China, where Russian merchants made tidy
profits.
From 1743 on, Russian fur merchants
sent hunters who quickly subjected the Aleut. At least four-fifths of the Aleut
are estimated to have been wiped out in the first two generations after Russian
contact. European diseases such as smallpox, measles, tuberculosis, venereal
disease, and pneumonia, as well as Russian guns, reduced the Aleut from an
estimated pre-contact population between 15,000 and 20,000 to 2,247 in 1834, and
1,400 in 1848. By 1864, following intermarriage with Russians, the population
was up to 2,005, but by 1890 it declined to 1,702.
The hunters moved eastward along the
island chain as the supply of animals thinned out. As they moved farther from
Kamchatka, costs went up and smaller companies dropped out. By 1770 three
enterprises, those of Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov, Pavel Sergeyevich
Lebedev-Lastochkin, and Grigorii and Petr Panov, dominated the Alaskan fur
trade. After Catherine the Great became ruler of Russia in 1762, the government
was more aware of the Aleutians. She terminated the yasak on the Aleut in 1769
and demanded better care and treatment of them, but provided no means to enforce
her decrees.
B2 | Competition from Other Powers |
Spain was also interested in the
North Pacific. The fear of Russian expansion persuaded the Spanish to occupy
Alta California (now the state of California) and build forts at San Diego,
Monterey, and other California settlements. Expeditions were sent to Alaska in
1774, 1777, 1778, and 1790 to explore and perhaps take possession of territory.
However, when the Spanish confronted ships of Britain at Nootka Sound (now in
British Columbia, Canada), they gave up all claims to territory north of
there.
Britain, France, and the United
States explored Alaska but did not attempt to acquire territory. In 1778 British
Captain James Cook mapped the Alaskan coast and visited the Aleutians. Cook
sailed from Alaska with sea otter pelts, which his men sold in China at high
prices. Subsequent British interest in Alaska centered on trade. The French sent
one expedition to Alaska under the ill-fated Jean François de Galaup, comte de
La Pérouse, who was lost at sea on his way home in 1788. The French Revolution
in 1789 cut short France’s interest in the region.
B3 | Colonization |
The Russian fur companies were
annoyed by the foreign competition, especially from the British, who offered the
indigenous peoples better and cheaper goods than the Russians did. The Russians
felt it was necessary to establish a colony. In 1784 Shelikhov built several
ships and sailed to Kodiak Island. After defeating some Eskimo in a skirmish, he
established the first permanent Russian settlement there on Three Saints
Bay.
By 1786 Shelikhov was the leading fur
merchant in the Aleutians but needed an able manager for his enterprises. He
found one in Aleksandr Andreyevich Baranov, a Siberian fur merchant, who arrived
on Kodiak in 1791. He soon moved the settlement from Three Saints Bay to
Pavlovsk, on the northern side of the island, which had a better harbor and
abundant forests to provide wood for construction. Pavlovsk is now the town of
Kodiak.
Baranov faced many problems. Much of
the food and almost all finished goods had to be imported, and Russian supply
ships were few. Labor was a key problem throughout the Russian period. There
never were enough workers for defense, shipbuilding, or the day-to-day tasks of
the colony. Therefore, Natives made up much of the workforce and did most of the
fur hunting, while the Russian colonists trapped, cured skins, and stood guard
duty.
Baranov also built settlements in the
Aleutians and southeastern Alaska. The most important of these,
Novo-Arkhangel’sk (New Archangel), was built in the Alexander Archipelago in
1799. In 1802 the Tlingit attacked and destroyed the fort. Baranov returned in
1804 and, aided by a Russian warship, defeated the Tlingit. He then rebuilt
Novo-Arkhangel’sk 4.8 km (3 mi) to the south, where it grew to become the city
of Sitka.
B4 | The Russian-American Company |
Shelikhov died in 1795. His
son-in-law and successor, Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov, obtained in 1799 a charter
from the Russian ruler, Tsar Paul I, that granted his company, the
Russian-American Company, a monopoly of the American fur trade. It empowered the
company to take possession of all territories already occupied by Russians north
of 55° north latitude and to establish new settlements not only in that area but
also to the south, provided this did not cause conflict with other powers.
Baranov established a southern
settlement in 1812, near Bodega Bay in California, calling it Selenie Ross (now
known as Fort Ross). The Russians remained there nearly 30 years, but Fort Ross
never fulfilled their expectation of supplying Alaska with food. In 1841 the
company sold Fort Ross to John Sutter, a German entrepreneur who became
important in California history: it was at his mill in Coloma that gold was
found in 1848, starting the California Gold Rush.
The directors of the company retired
Baranov in 1818. He sailed for Russia, but died at sea on the way. His
retirement came in the last years of the company’s charter and ushered in a new
phase in the development of Russian America. Russian naval officers succeeded
him. When the charter was renewed in 1821, it stipulated that the chief
managers, or governors as they came to be called, had to be naval officers.
The navy improved the colony’s
administration, considerably enlarging the bureaucracy. But unlike Baranov, the
naval officers had little interest in business. Also, the Russian navy was
unable to stem the intrusion of British and Americans into Alaska. An attempt by
the tsar to forbid all foreign vessels within 160 km (100 mi) of Russian-claimed
lands was met with protests from the British and United States governments.
The dispute with the United States
was settled by a convention of 1824 setting 54°40’ north latitude as the
southern boundary of Russian territory. Russia agreed with Britain in 1825 that
Russian claims would extend eastward to the 141st meridian, southward to the
56th parallel, and southward from there along a narrow strip of land (the
Panhandle) on the Pacific coast. Russia gave both powers the right to trade
along the Alaska coast for ten years. That ended Russian expansion in
America.
After skirmishes in Southeastern
between Russians and the Hudson’s Bay Company, Russia in 1839 leased to Hudson’s
Bay the Southeastern mainland south of Cape Spencer for ten years for a nominal
rent. In return, Hudson’s Bay promised to supply Alaska and Kamchatka with food
and manufactured goods. The lease was renewed in 1849.
C | U.S. Purchase of Alaska |
In 1843 U.S. Secretary of State William
Marcy and Senator William M. Gwin, both ardent expansionists, asked Baron Eduard
Stoeckl, the Russian ambassador to the United States, if rumors that the colony
was for sale were true. Stoeckl said no, but the question had been raised.
The charter of the Russian-American
Company was renewed for 20 years in 1844. The company attempted to diversify the
economy by mining coal, catching whales, and exporting ice to San Francisco, but
these ventures amounted to little. By the late 1850s, after Russia lost the
Crimean War against the British and French, the government became convinced that
it could ill afford the luxury of an American colony. Russia decided to sell its
American colony and instructed Stoeckl to negotiate with the United States.
Stoeckl began discussions with U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward on
March 11, 1867, and at the end of March they drew up the Treaty of Cession and
sent it to their governments for ratification. The agreed price was $7.2
million.
Seward had some difficulty getting the
Senate of the United States to ratify the treaty, but he carried on a vigorous
campaign to gain support, and the Senate agreed by a vote of 37 to 2. A few
newspapers denounced what they called “Seward’s Folly” or “Walrussia,” but the
vast majority of the nation’s press supported the purchase. Proponents argued
that purchasing Alaska would strengthen fishing and fur trading enterprises in
the North Pacific, allow the United States to build important naval outposts in
the region, prevent European countries from developing a stronghold in North
America, and enhance existing ties of friendship between the United States and
Russia.
In 1868 the merits of the Alaskan
purchase were fully debated in the U.S. House of Representatives, which had to
appropriate the money to pay for the purchase. The House eventually voted on
July 18, 1868, to pay Russia for the land. Meanwhile, the United States had
taken possession of Alaska on October 18, 1867.
The Russian phase of Alaskan history
had lasted 126 years. Russian activities had been mainly limited to the
Aleutians, Kodiak, and the Alexander Archipelago. There was some exploration of
the Interior, but little settlement. At its peak the Russian population numbered
no more than 700. The greatest impact of this period was the influence of the
Russian Orthodox Church and its priests among the Aleut and Tlingit, which
continues today.
The United States was not much better
prepared than the Russians to administer Alaska. The new possession was remote,
and most Americans knew little about it. The American Civil War had just ended,
and the country’s leaders were intent on dealing with the problems left by that
conflict. However, many Americans had been coming to Alaska for more than 75
years to trade, sell supplies, and later hunt whales. Furthermore, in 1864 the
Western Union Company, through its subsidiary the Collins Overland Line, had
embarked on building a telegraph line through Alaska to connect North America
with eastern Asia and Europe. This enterprise collapsed when a transatlantic
cable was completed in 1866. Western Union’s effort, however, stimulated
American interest in Alaska, and a scientific expedition from the Smithsonian
Institution brought back extensive data about the region’s resources and
climate. In addition, the Russians had accumulated much information about
Alaska, which became available to the United States after the purchase.
C1 | The Era of Neglect |
General Jefferson C. Davis, the U.S.
Army commander in Alaska, became the virtual ruler of the new acquisition.
Congress extended the laws governing commerce and navigation to Alaska and
prohibited the importation, manufacture, and sale of liquor. Nothing was done to
establish a civil government, and for 17 years, until 1884, Alaska remained
under military rule.
Sitka experienced a short land boom
as American adventurers and entrepreneurs arrived, looking for the opportunities
to be found in a new land. The town’s residents drew up a charter, elected a
governing council, and named a mayor. Thomas Murphy started a newspaper, the
Alaska Times, and the council hired a schoolteacher at $75 per month. But
Sitka’s prosperity soon ended. The port’s commerce declined, residents moved
away, and in the summer of 1873 the Sitka city council held its last meeting.
Many of those who left blamed the federal government for Sitka’s decline and
Alaska’s misfortunes. Congress had failed to provide needed services such as
mail delivery, construction of lighthouses, and surveying of land. People left,
in part, because without a survey they could not get title to land.
The army was not fond of its Alaskan
assignment. Both enlisted men and officers disliked their northern tour of duty,
suffering from boredom. Army officials, in their annual reports, invariably
recommended withdrawal of the troops since the army had neither the authority
nor the training to administer a civil government. Most of the duties of the
troops consisted of controlling the importation and manufacture of liquor.
Finally, in 1877, the War Department recalled its troops from Alaska. After they
left, U.S. Collector of Customs Mottrom D. Ball was the only government official
in Alaska.
When fighting occurred between
Natives and whites in February 1879, some Sitka residents feared an impending
massacre and called on the U.S. Navy to send a vessel for their protection. When
they did not get a timely reply, they appealed to the British, who in March sent
the warship H.M.S. Osprey from Victoria, British Columbia. With the
arrival of the U.S.S. Jamestown in June 1879, the U.S. Navy began to rule
Alaska.
In the meantime, the Alaska
Commercial Company acquired much influence in Alaskan affairs. It had been
organized in San Francisco by the recipients of an 1870 government grant of a
20-year lease of exclusive rights to harvest fur seals in the Pribilof Islands.
Before long the company extended its commercial empire to the Aleutians, Kodiak
Island, and the Yukon River valley. It took over the Hudson’s Bay Company post
at Fort Yukon after the United States ordered the British to leave. As the
company’s economic power grew, so did its role in political and social affairs.
It provided schools and medical services in some communities, and even
maintained law and order. In 1880 the company paid a 100 percent dividend to its
stockholders, demonstrating that the fur trade was still profitable. But the
Alaska economy was beginning to change: salmon fishing entered its commercial
era when the first canneries were built at Klawock and Sitka in 1878.
C2 | Growth of Mining |
However, it was mining, not fishing,
that brought Alaska’s first population boom. Some gold mining had been done in
Southeastern, and the 1880 census listed 82 Sitka residents as miners. In 1880
George Pilz of Sitka, a German-born mining school graduate, grubstaked (supplied
food and other necessities to) two men, Joseph Juneau and Richard Harris, to
search for gold. Near Gastineau Channel Juneau and Harris found placer, or
flake, gold in a stream they called Gold Creek and also at Silver Bow Basin at
the head of the creek. Miners rushed to the area, which they named the
Harrisburg Mining District. A town quickly grew up, which was named Juneau City,
later shortened to Juneau.
The miners would have left after the
placer deposits were worked out, but the town of Juneau survived because of the
discovery of lode, or hard-rock deposits, which required expensive machinery to
extract the gold. California promoter John Treadwell purchased a claim, the
Paris Lode, on Douglas Island across from Juneau and developed it into the
profitable Treadwell Mine. It provided year-round employment and gave Juneau its
economic base. By 1890 Juneau had 1,251 people and was a typical American town
with a variety of privately owned stores, schools, a hospital, nine saloons, and
two breweries.
Napoleon LeRoy “Jack” McQuesten,
Arthur Harper, and Al Mayo, agents of the Alaska Commercial Company, opened the
Yukon Valley to mining. Although primarily interested in the fur trade, they did
some prospecting and, most importantly, furnished supplies and grubstakes to
other prospectors. Mining on the Yukon was confined almost solely to the
Canadian side until 1886. In that year, gold discoveries near the Fortymile
River on the Alaskan side triggered a new rush. Prospectors made discoveries in
the Birch Creek area, which became the gold mining center of the Yukon Valley
and the most important camp there until the Klondike discovery of 1896. By 1896
the value of mining from the Alaska side of the Yukon Valley had risen from
about $30,000 to $800,000. The white population of Alaska had grown from fewer
than 500 in 1880 to 8,000, most of whom were miners. About 1,000 of these lived
in the Yukon Valley.
D | Organization of Civil Government |
Not having a formal government, the
miners of Juneau and the Interior, like their counterparts in the American West,
drafted their own form of frontier democracy known as miners’ codes. These codes
regulated mining practices and community conduct.
In the meantime, Congress passed a
measure in 1884 to provide Alaska with a simple civil government. Alaska was
designated a judicial district, and the law code of Oregon was applied. The
president, with Senate approval, was to appoint a governor, a district court
judge, four lesser-court commissioners, a district attorney, a U.S. marshal and
four deputies, and a clerk of court. The act expressly forbade a legislature and
a delegate to Congress. Natives were not to be disturbed in their occupancy or
use of the land, and prohibition of liquor was retained. The sum of $25,000 was
provided for the education of children.
D1 | The Gold Rush |
With the gold discovery in the
Klondike in Canada’s Yukon Territory in 1896, people soon flocked north from all
parts of the world. As the gateway to the Klondike, Alaska prospered, and new
communities and businesses developed to meet the gold seekers’ needs. Many of
those disappointed in the Klondike drifted to Alaska. In 1898 four miners
discovered gold at Anvil Creek on the Seward Peninsula, and the Nome Mining
District was organized there. By the summer of 1900, Nome was a tent city with
more than 20,000 miners working the claims and the beaches, which also contained
gold.
The next great strike after Nome
occurred in the Tanana Valley and led to the founding of Fairbanks in 1902.
Other discoveries in the valley helped make Fairbanks the center of interior
Alaska. District Court Judge James Wickersham moved the headquarters of the
Third Judicial District to Fairbanks, which attracted other government functions
and gave the town economic stability. It acquired schools, churches, and a
hospital, and by 1905 its population had grown to 5,000.
Gold was mined and new towns founded
throughout Alaska. North of the Arctic Circle gold was found near the Chandalar
and Koyukuk rivers, where two settlements, Coldfoot and Wiseman, came into
existence. In the area of the Kuskokwim and Innoko rivers, Iditarod, McGrath,
Bethel, Flat, and Ophir were communities of some size that developed from mining
camps.
D2 | Federal Attention |
The gold rush focused national
attention on Alaska. Congress started to deal more seriously with Alaskan
problems. It appropriated funds for the U.S. Geological Survey to begin a survey
and exploration of Alaska, and it extended federal coal mining laws to the
district. The U.S. Army built posts at Eagle, Nome, Haines, and Tanana.
Congress also enacted three pieces
of legislation dealing with the economy and the political system. The first,
passed in 1898, enabled railroad builders to obtain a right-of-way and extended
the homestead laws to Alaska so that settlers could now get title to land. In
1899 Congress enacted changes to make the Oregon Code more responsive to Alaskan
conditions. At the same time it levied taxes on businesses. The revenues
collected went into the U.S. Treasury to pay for the cost of governing Alaska.
And in 1900 Congress added two new judicial districts, moved the capital from
Sitka to Juneau, and provided for incorporation of towns.
D3 | Boundary Settlement |
The gold rush era brought to a head
a long-standing boundary dispute with Canada. The portion of the Russo-British
treaty of 1825 that was intended to define the limits of British and Russian
possessions south of 60° north latitude was ambiguous. Several times since the
1867 purchase, disputes had arisen and suggestions were made, mainly by the
Canadians, to settle the controversy. But neither side was willing to pay for a
survey.
By 1898 Canada claimed ownership of
Skagway and Dyea, which would have given Canadians in the Yukon Territory direct
access to the Pacific Ocean without having to pass through American territory.
President Theodore Roosevelt condemned Canada’s claims as lacking any merit.
Eventually, a tribunal of six jurists, three from each side, examined the
controversy. By a vote of four to two, with Richard Alverstone, Lord Chief
Justice of Britain, siding with the United States, the Canadian claims were
rejected except for two small islands in Portland Canal. The decision, in 1903,
soured relations with Canada for a time, but the boundary was now clearly
defined.
E | The 20th Century |
E1 | Economic Developments |
As Alaska’s population grew to
63,592 in 1900, the federal government sought to encourage agriculture. As early
as 1897, the U.S. Department of Agriculture had sent three agents to various
regions in Alaska to examine their suitability for agriculture. Acting on the
agents’ recommendations, the department established several agricultural
experiment stations, first at Sitka in 1898, then at Kenai, Kodiak, Rampart,
Copper Center, Fairbanks, and finally Matanuska in 1917.
Alaska also needed a transportation
system, but road building did not begin until passage of the Nelson Act and the
creation of the Board of Road Commissioners in 1905. The Nelson Act created the
Alaska Fund, decreeing that 70 percent of all money collected from license fees
outside of incorporated towns was to be used for road building. Another 25
percent went for education, and the remaining 5 percent for care of the insane.
Since the Nelson Fund did not accumulate enough money, Congress annually
appropriated additional road construction funds. By 1920 the Alaska Road
Commission, as the board came to be called, had built 7,870 km (4,890 mi) of
roads and trails.
The United States elected Democrat
Woodrow Wilson as president in 1912. He promised to give Alaska’s problems the
utmost consideration. Among other items, he recommended that Congress aid in
unlocking Alaska’s resources by constructing a railroad. Congress authorized the
construction of the Alaska Railroad in 1914 and appropriated $35 million;
construction began in 1915. The line was to run from Seward to Fairbanks. The
project was finished in 1923 at a cost of about $65 million.
Anchorage, now Alaska’s largest
city, owes its origin to the railroad. It began as construction headquarters for
the Alaska Engineering Commission in charge of railroad construction. The
commission built Anchorage, installing water, electrical, sewage, and telephone
facilities. It put in streets and provided firefighting services as well as a
hospital and a school for children of its employees. The railroad construction
brought an economic boom, employing more than 2,000 workers in 1914 and rising
to a high of 4,500.
E2 | Political Developments |
In 1906, in response to repeated
Alaskan demands, Congress granted residents the right to elect a nonvoting
delegate to the House of Representatives. Frank H. Waskey was elected for the
rest of the current congressional session, while Thomas Cale won the first full
term, to start in 1907.
In 1908 Judge James Wickersham won
the election, succeeding Cale. He backed a limited form of territorial
government, and in 1912 Congress passed his legislative assembly bill, also
called Alaska’s Second Organic Act. It created a new government for Alaska,
including a bicameral legislature with limited powers, which was to meet
biannually. Earlier, in the case of Rasmussen v. United States,
1905, the Supreme Court of the United States had decided that Alaska was
“incorporated territory” and therefore bound for eventual statehood.
E3 | World War I and After |
When the United States entered World
War I in 1917, many Alaskan men left to join the armed services or to work in
war industries. After the war, Alaska’s economy was still centered around its
natural resources. Mining and fishing were far more important than the fur
trade. But the fisheries gave little employment to territorial residents since
the salmon packers brought their own crews north each summer. The prospectors’
primitive mining methods had given way to the use of machinery; large dredges
now recovered the gold. Copper mining had come to rival gold, but provided jobs
for only several hundred. Agriculture had not flourished. Alaska was still very
much a colony: it had limited home rule, Congress controlled its natural
resources, and it supplied raw materials in exchange for finished goods and
investment capital.
The beginning of the air age in the
1920s had a great impact on Alaska. It was difficult to build roads and
railroads in the territory because of its rugged terrain, severe climate, and
vast distances. However, the airplane made previously remote locations
accessible. Alaska played a large role in the early years of aviation and was
the scene of important flights. For example, the U.S. Army fliers who made the
first round-the-world flight used Alaskan landing fields.
Alaska experienced an economic slump
after the war, residents left, and economic growth slowed well into the 1930s.
The 1920 census showed a population of 55,036, a drop of 9,320 from 1910.
Employment in the mines declined; in 1938 the Kennecott mine, Alaska’s last
great copper mine, closed. Salmon prices also declined. Although Alaska suffered
less from the Great Depression of the 1930s than the rest of the United States,
its economy was affected. For example, federal appropriations for Alaska, never
very high, were cut. Because of its perennial deficits, Congress became
increasingly critical of the Alaska Railroad.
Americans looked to Democratic
President Franklin D. Roosevelt to solve the misery of the Great Depression.
Roosevelt responded with the New Deal, a composite of relief and reform
programs. Some actions of the Roosevelt Administration benefited the territory.
The devaluation of the dollar that resulted from raising the price of gold
stimulated the mining industry: the value of mined gold rose from $10,209,000 in
1932 to $26,178,000 in 1940.
Most notable of all New Deal
activities in Alaska was the Matanuska Valley agricultural colony. One of many
resettlement projects designed to take people from rural districts mired in
poverty and move them where they might lead more productive lives, the Matanuska
experiment excited national interest. The cost amounted to $5 million. About 31
percent of the original settlers and 43 percent of the replacements still lived
in the colony in 1948.
E4 | Native Reorganization |
Alaska’s Natives also participated
in the New Deal. In 1934 Congress, on the administration’s recommendation,
passed the Wheeler-Howard Act, also called the Indian Reorganization Act. Two
years later it was extended to Alaska. The act rejected forced assimilation to
white culture and instead fostered preservation of the Natives’ cultural
heritage. The act also allowed Native communities to incorporate and draft
constitutions for self-government. Business loans extended to villages allowed
them to set up canneries. Individual fishermen borrowed money to buy boats and
gear.
The most controversial aspect of the
act contemplated the creation of reservations. Alaskans protested that applying
this policy to Alaska would turn two-thirds of the state, and virtually all of
Southeastern, into reservations. In the 1940s, in the face of adamant
opposition, the federal government withdrew the reservation plan.
The Natives, for the most part,
wanted full political, economic, and social equality rather than separation on
reservations. In the 1940s Tlingit and then Eskimo began to be elected to the
state legislature. The 1945 session of the legislature passed an act outlawing
what racial discrimination there had been—such as “white only” restaurants and
segregation in theaters. Natives were appointed to serve on major territorial
boards. Native schools closed and the children were transferred to the general
public schools. The question of Native land rights remained open, however, and
would eventually have to be resolved.
E5 | World War II (1939-1945) |
World War II profoundly changed
Alaska. On the eve of the war, Alaska’s only military establishment was Chilkoot
Barracks in Haines. The post had been established during the gold rush days and
was situated where it could observe traffic bound inland over the Dalton Trail
and over Chilkoot, Chilkat, and White passes. Eleven officers and 300 enlisted
men manned the post.
Early in 1935 Congress had named six
strategic areas for location of U.S. Army Air Corps bases. Alaska was one of
these. The shortest distance between the United States and Asia was the great
circle route, 3,200 km (2,000 mi) north of fortified Hawaii but only 444 km (276
mi) south of the Aleutians. Brigadier General Billy Mitchell, an advocate of air
power, testified before Congress in 1935 that Japan was America’s most dangerous
enemy in the Pacific: “They will come right here to Alaska. Alaska is the most
central place in the world for aircraft, and that is true either of Europe,
Asia, or North America. I believe in the future he who holds Alaska will hold
the world, and I think it is the most important strategic place in the world.”
It took Congress several more years to respond; in 1940 it appropriated $4
million to construct a cold-weather testing station for airplanes near
Fairbanks. The Navy built air stations at Sitka and Kodiak. The Army’s budget
for fiscal year 1941 included a base near Anchorage to cost $12,734,000, but
Congress eliminated the item on April 4, 1940. A few days later, on April 9,
Germany’s armies invaded and occupied Norway and Denmark. For the first time
many members of Congress realized that Norway and Denmark were just over the
North Pole from Alaska and that the Germans might soon have bombers that could
fly that far. Congress restored the money. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese
struck Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, devastating the Pacific fleet. Alaska was ill
prepared. On June 3, 1942, the Japanese attacked Dutch Harbor and soon occupied
the islands of Kiska and Attu in the Aleutians.
In the meantime, the Army and
private contractors built the Alaska-Canada Military Highway in little more than
nine months. It opened November 20, 1942, a major engineering achievement. The
Alaska Highway, as it is now called, connected the landing fields on the air
route to Alaska. It started at Dawson Creek, British Columbia, and ran 2,288 km
(1,422 mi) to Delta Junction, Alaska. The highway was later extended to
Fairbanks.
Armed forces personnel in Alaska
increased to 150,000. On May 11, 1943, U.S. troops landed on Attu and after a
bitter battle retook the island on May 29. On August 14 a large invasion of
Kiska was launched, but, unknown to the Americans, the Japanese had evacuated on
July 23. The forces soon discovered that the enemy had left and the war in
Alaska had ended.
The war had a profound and lasting
impact on the territory. It altered the pace of Alaskan life. Between 1941 and
1945 the federal government spent close to $2 billion in the north. The
modernization of the Alaska railroad and the expansion of airfields and
construction of roads benefited the war effort as well as the civilian
population. Many of the docks, wharves, and breakwaters built along the coast
for the use of the U.S. Navy, Coast Guard, and Army Transport Service were
turned over to the territory after the war. Most importantly, thousands of
soldiers and construction workers had come north, and many decided to make
Alaska their home. Between 1940 and 1950 the civilian population increased from
74,000 to 112,000.
E6 | The Drive for Statehood |
With the population influx,
residents pushed for statehood. James Wickersham had introduced the first
statehood bill in 1916, but it did not receive a hearing. In 1943 Senator
William Langer of North Dakota and Congressman Anthony J. Dimond of Alaska both
introduced Alaska enabling bills. Congress did not consider either measure, but
Dimond’s successor, E.L. “Bob” Bartlett, continued introducing statehood bills.
In 1946 Alaskans voted on statehood in a referendum, with 9,630 votes in favor
and 6,822 against. Congress held the first hearing on an Alaska statehood bill
in 1947, and the House passed a statehood measure in 1950. The Korean War
(1950-1953) intervened, however, and the measure was set aside. In 1955,
impatient with congressional delays, the territorial legislature authorized a
convention to draft a state constitution. Alaskan voters ratified the document
in 1956.
Alaskan voters elected as U.S.
senators Ernest Gruening, who had been territorial governor from 1939 to 1953,
and William A. Egan, who had presided over the constitutional convention. For
U.S. congressman they elected Ralph J. Rivers, a former territorial attorney
general. Although Congress did not seat them, they lobbied hard for statehood.
Finally, on May 26, 1958, the House passed the Alaska statehood bill by a vote
of 210 to 166; the Senate followed on June 30. President Dwight D. Eisenhower
signed the measure into law on July 7, 1958, and on January 3, 1959, he signed
the proclamation admitting Alaska as the 49th state of the union. Under the
statehood act, Alaska also received 41,824,000 hectares (103,350,000 acres), to
be selected from vacant, unappropriated public lands within 25 years after
admission.
In 1959 Egan was elected as Alaska’s
first state governor, and Alaska’s first voting delegation was seated in
Congress: Gruening, Rivers, and Senator E. L. “Bob” Bartlett. The Alaska
delegation soon speeded passage of the Omnibus Bill for the new state, an
afterthought to the statehood act. It not only put Alaska on an equal footing
with the other states, but also granted $27.5 million in transitional grants
over a five-year period.
E7 | The New State’s Economy |
After spending for World War II
ceased about 1945, Alaska was rescued from economic depression and obscurity by
the Cold War, a 40-year period of hostility between the United States and the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (which incorporated Russia). Defense
construction and military activities turned Alaska into a defensive bulwark and
created a second, even larger boom.
However, in 1959 Alaska’s economy
was rather dismal. Military spending had passed its peak in 1954, gold mining
had not recovered from its virtual shutdown for the war effort in the early
1940s, and the salmon fisheries faced a crisis brought about by federal
mismanagement, overfishing, and competition from Japanese fishing fleets. Farm
production and income from furs were negligible. In addition, the state now had
to assume all the functions formerly performed by the federal government. For
example, it had to establish a judicial system and manage its fish and game
resources.
The timber industry, however, was
improving: in 1954, the first large pulp mill had opened in Ketchikan. Also, in
1957, Richfield Oil Corporation discovered the Swanson River field on the Kenai
Peninsula, establishing Alaska’s first commercially viable oil production.
E8 | The Great Earthquake |
Alaska is geologically unstable.
Residents were reminded of this at 5:36 pm on March 27, 1964, when one of the
greatest earthquakes of all time struck south central Alaska. It measured 9.2 on
the Richter scale and released twice as much energy as the 1906 earthquake that
destroyed San Francisco. The total damage for the quake is estimated to have
been between $350 million and $500 million, but that includes the damage due to
a tsunami that hit the West Coast.
Fortunately, the loss of life was
relatively low, with only 114 people killed. The town of Valdez was totally
destroyed, most of the office buildings in the center of Anchorage were
destroyed or severely damaged, and whole subdivisions slid into Cook Inlet.
Kodiak’s crab and salmon processing facilities were shattered, and Seward’s
shoreline looked as though it had been bombed. The federal government came to
the aid of the stricken state, and on August 14, 1964, President Lyndon B.
Johnson signed into law legislation that generously assisted Alaska
reconstruction.
E9 | Prudhoe Bay Oil and Native Claims |
In early 1968 the Atlantic-Richfield
Company struck the 10-billion-barrel Prudhoe Bay oil field on Alaska’s Arctic
coastal plain. In the subsequent oil lease sale in 1969, the 23rd since
statehood, oil companies bid more than $900 million. There was hope that
Alaska’s economy would stabilize and diversify. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
(TAPS), a joint venture of Atlantic-Richfield, British Petroleum, and Humble
Oil, applied to the U.S. Department of the Interior in June 1969 for a permit to
construct a hot-oil pipeline across 1,280 km (800 mi) of public domain from
Prudhoe Bay to the coast at Valdez on Prince William Sound.
It soon became apparent that no
pipeline would be built without settling the long-standing Native claims. Some
sections of the proposed right-of-way crossed lands that Natives claimed. For
some time, Natives had filed protests to state land selections; between 1961 and
1968, such filings covered almost 136 million hectares (337 million acres). In
1966 Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall imposed a land freeze, stopping the
transfer of any lands claimed by Natives. The Natives united in 1967 in a
representative body, the Alaska Federation of Natives, which started to lobby
for a settlement.
The land freeze and the necessity of
getting the oil to market forced the state, the oil companies, Natives,
conservationists, and developers to work together for a solution. After much
work, Congress passed and President Richard M. Nixon signed into law the Alaska
Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) on December 18, 1971. Natives were to
receive title to approximately 18 million hectares (44 million acres) of land
and compensation of $962.5 million, of which about half was to come from the
federal treasury and the rest from mineral revenue sharing. Twelve regional
business corporations would administer the settlement. Every Native could hold
100 shares of stock in one of the corporations after registering and proving
Native ancestry. In addition, the act created 220 village corporations, which
could be either for-profit or nonprofit. To gain the support of
environmentalists, the act authorized the secretary of the interior to withdraw
up to 32.37 million hectares (80 million acres) of Alaskan land for study and
possible inclusion in national parks or forests, wildlife refuges, wild or
scenic river systems, wilderness areas, and national monuments. Congress would
decide which areas to include.
E10 | The New Oil-Based Economy |
With the Native claims settled, the
pipeline promoters faced the opposition of environmental groups that sued to
halt pipeline construction. In the meantime, the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) cut off oil supplies to the United States in 1973. An
energy crisis resulted, and Congress passed legislation authorizing the
construction of the pipeline. Construction by the Alyeska Pipeline Service
Company started in 1974, and the first oil arrived at the Valdez tanker terminal
on July 28, 1977. This project, one of the largest privately financed projects
ever built, cost approximately $9 billion. Thousands of construction workers
streamed to Alaska to work on the pipeline at an average wage of $1,200 per
week, about three or four times what they could make in the “lower 48.” Parts of
Alaska near the pipeline boomed, but once it was built, Alyeska laid off most of
the workers.
By the end of 1985 more than 4
billion barrels of crude oil had been pumped from the Prudhoe Bay field. By
early 1986 approximately 6,000 tankers had berthed at Valdez. With the resulting
oil wealth, the legislature abolished personal income taxes, and the state
became largely dependent on oil revenues for its budgets. For comparison, Texas,
Louisiana, and Oklahoma—other states with large oil pumping operations—received
19.6, 29.2, and 15 percent, respectively, of their revenues directly from the
oil industry in that year. More than 80 percent of Alaska’s revenues came from
oil revenues in 1978. In 1980 it was 90 percent and in 1982, 87 percent. The
state budget was affected later when the price of oil declined, tumbling to less
than $10 a barrel in 1986, although the price has since recovered to between $14
and $20 per barrel.
In 1976 voters had approved a
constitutional amendment creating the Alaska Permanent Fund. It required that at
least 25 percent of all mineral lease bonuses, royalties, and rentals be
deposited in a fund used only for income-producing investments. Various state
leaders, including Republican Governor Jay S. Hammond (1974-1982), have worried
about the integrity of the fund’s principal. At Hammond’s urging, the
legislature enacted into law the innovative concept of permanent fund dividends
to distribute part of the earnings directly to Alaska citizens. The purpose was
to create a constituency with a vested interest in protecting the fund’s
principal. After a court challenge, the legislature implemented the plan in
early 1982: any adult who had lived in Alaska at least six months was to receive
dividends of $1,000. For future years it promised smaller amounts based on
distribution of half the earnings of the permanent fund in any given year. In
1995 the principal was approximately $15 billion, and each eligible Alaskan
received a dividend check for $990.30 that year.
With low taxes and declining oil
revenues, the state spent more than it took in for six out of nine years in the
1980s and 1990s. The deficit amounted to about $523 million in 1995.
E11 | Public Land Disputes |
In the 1970s the so-called d2
controversy erupted in Alaska, named after Section 17(d)(2) in the ANCSA, which
directed the secretary of the interior to withdraw land for study and possible
inclusion in federal conservation units. In 1972 the secretary withdrew 29
million hectares (72 million acres). In 1973 the Joint Federal-State Land Use
Planning Commission, established in 1972 by the state and federal governments
under the ANCSA, made its first recommendation for the withdrawn acreage.
Reflecting its largely Alaskan composition, it stressed the multiple-use concept
and urged that more than 24 million hectares (60 million acres) be opened for
mineral development.
At the same time conservation
groups lobbied vigorously for the creation of parks, wilderness areas, and
refuges, and an Alaskan task force in the Department of the Interior formulated
alternatives for the acreage. The task force was under conflicting pressures
from industry, conservationists, and the state, all of which had different plans
for the land. It also had to deal with federal agencies; the U.S. Forest Service
intended to create vast new national forests, while the Bureau of Land
Management desired to maintain its control over the land, and the National Park
Service wanted to add new parks and expand existing ones.
A bitter fight ensued within Alaska
and in Congress. Finally, Congress approved the Alaska National Interest Lands
Conservation Act (ANILCA) in 1980. The measure put 42 million hectares (104
million acres) in new conservation units; of these, 23 million hectares (57
million acres) were designated as wilderness.
Alaska’s Natives had started to
lobby Congress once they realized that the ANCSA did not protect the subsistence
lifestyle—hunting and fishing for their own consumption—that many Natives still
followed. Congress, therefore, included a provision in the ANILCA to ensure the
continuation of the subsistence lifestyle. Federal land managers were to give
the highest priority to subsistence use of resources by rural Alaskans, and the
state was to continue management of fish and wildlife on federal lands as long
as it adhered to that basic priority. However, the state could not do so because
the state constitution grants all citizens equal access to the use of natural
resources. Thus the federal government assumed fish and wildlife management
responsibilities on the public lands. Subsistence has remained a volatile issue
in Alaska, with no easy solution.
E12 | The Exxon Valdez Disaster |
For years after the pipeline
opened, many residents warned that a major oil spill in northern waters was
certain to occur, in part because the oil industry refused to employ
double-hulled tankers in the Alaska trade. On the night of March 23, 1989, the
Exxon Valdez left the Valdez pipeline terminal bound for Long Beach,
California. The tanker’s captain, who had a history of alcohol abuse known to
his employers, retired to his cabin after the pilot, who had guided the ship
through the Valdez Narrows, had left the ship. The third mate, who lacked the
U.S. Coast Guard certificate required for controlling vessels in these waters,
was alone on the bridge. In the early hours of March 24, far outside the 16 km
(10 mi) wide shipping lanes, the tanker struck Bligh Reef, a well-charted
hazard, and ran aground. More than 38 million liters (10 million gallons) of
crude oil was discharged into Prince William Sound, making this the worst spill
in North American history.
Efforts to clean up the mess have
proved extremely difficult. Exxon Corporation, the owner of the vessel, paid out
several billion dollars in cleanup and litigation costs. The Exxon Valdez
Oil Spill Trustee Council, made up of state and federal officials, was
established to administer the disbursement of over $900 million in civil
penalties paid by Exxon to restore the environment. The council has provided
funds for the purchase of huge tracts of land in Alaska, often bought from
Native Regional Corporations, to be used in expanding public parks, national
forests, and wildlife refuges. A portion of the money paid in damages has also
been allocated for scientific research and public education.
E13 | Alaska at Century’s End |
In the 1990s Alaska faced declining
oil revenues; its agriculture remained negligible; despite huge coal reserves,
only one coal mine operated in the state, and it exported a modest 881,000
metric tons of coal to South Korea annually. The state government had carefully
nursed the wild salmon stocks so they again yielded bountiful harvests. The
tourist industry had increased every year since statehood, but the state’s
efforts to diversify its economy were not a great success. Democratic governor
Tony Knowles, first elected in 1994, pledged to “add value to our resources”
while at the same time enhancing the beauty and cleanliness of Alaska.
The twelve Native corporations
(plus a 13th, established in 1976 for Natives living outside the state) paid
out, from the 1971 cash settlement, an average of about $6,000 each to their
shareholders between 1972 and 1981. Meanwhile, as early as 1974 they started to
conduct business operations, often as joint ventures with established firms. The
results have been mixed. Going into the 1990s, most of the corporations had lost
money on direct business operations. All were hurt by the 1986 collapse of world
oil prices. Offsetting the losses was income from mineral leases, financial
portfolios, and sales of net operating losses. As a group, in their first 20
years of operation, the corporations were significantly less profitable than the
average U.S. corporation. Six of them entered the 1990s with few assets and were
recovering from heavy losses. In fact, the Natives might have realized a higher
return if they had invested the cash settlement in a diversified mutual fund
portfolio. Nevertheless, the regional corporations have given the Natives
valuable business experience and political clout in the state.
F | The 21st Century |
F1 | Oil and Budget Issues |
At the beginning of the 21st
century, the Alaskan economy continues to depend heavily on taxes and royalties
from oil and natural gas. In 2005 crude oil accounted for 86 percent of the
state's general revenues. Production of oil from the North Slope has declined by
nearly half since a peak in 1988, but reductions in production have been offset
by a rise in the price of oil in recent years, allowing the state to accumulate
a budget surplus.
The Alaska legislature has
identified other revenue sources that could be used to put state finances on a
more stable long-term footing. However, attempts to introduce new taxes have
repeatedly failed in recent years. In particular, reintroduction of the personal
income tax that was abolished in 1980 has met resistance. Disagreements have
also blocked the spending of some of the permanent fund income on pressing state
needs such as education.
Sustaining the revenue from oil and
gas has been among the reasons given by the advocates of drilling in the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), which borders the North Slope fields and which
is currently protected from development. An estimated 10.4 billion barrels of
oil may lie untapped in ANWR. Opening ANWR to drilling had been strongly
promoted by Republican governor Frank Murkowski and Republican U.S. Senator Ted
Stevens. Federal legislation to allow drilling in ANWR has been repeatedly
blocked in the U.S. Congress. Debate has focused in part on whether the amount
of oil available would justify the expense of development and the potential
environmental risks to an undisturbed wilderness area.
Increases in the price of oil were
expected to improve state revenues in 2006, but the partial shutdown of a
portion of the Prudhoe Bay complex in August and September meant a reduction in
the amount of oil sold. BP, the company that operates part of the North Slope
oil fields, discovered serious corrosion in part of the pipelines after a small
leak, and closed a section at Prudhoe Bay for replacements and repairs. The
partial shutdown came after a major leak in the pipeline in March 2006. Up to
267,000 gallons of oil may have spilled before the March leak was detected. The
incidents raised questions about the condition of the aging pipeline and about
the adequacy of the technologies and monitoring procedures used to test for
corrosion and leaks. A Congressional committee investigated BP's maintenance of
its portion of the Alaska pipeline and criticized the company's practices.
Environmental groups cited the recent pipeline leaks and shutdown as evidence
that drilling in ANWR could pose serious risks to the environment despite
improved technology.
F2 | New Governor |
Alaskans elected a new governor in
2006. Dissatisfaction with Murkowski led to a challenge in the Republican
primary from Sarah Palin, a social and fiscal conservative who first gained
attention as a whistle-blower in a scandal involving state government. Palin
emerged as the victor in the primary, and she went on to win the general
election. She took office as the state’s first female governor in December
2006.
The history section of this article
was contributed by Claus-M. Naske. The remainder of the article was contributed
by Donald Francis Lynch.
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